Forensic Psychology
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- Created by: Elishiaa
- Created on: 11-03-16 18:36
FARRINGTON
- Turning to Crime: Upbringing: Disruptive Families
- 411 boys aged 8-9 from 6 state schools in East London, mostly British and working class - they were interviewed again at 48
- Prospective longitudinal study
- Sample attrition rate: 11.2%
- 161 had convictions
- If boys committed a crime between 10 and 13, re-offending rates were 90%, with 91% having more than one conviction
- 'Persisters' (those who had a conviction before and after their 21st birthday) shared common childhood characteristics
- Risk factors included: criminality in the family, poverty, impulsiveness, poor child rearing, poor school performance
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SUTHERLAND
- Turning to Crime: Upbringing: Learning from Others
- Background: Bandura's Social Learning Theory - vicarious learning, learn from models, learning does not always result from direct actions
- 9 principles of criminal behaviour
- All criminal behaviour is learnt
- The behaviour is learnt through intimate interactions i.e. not the media (temporal validity?)
- Differential association
- Criminal behaviour cannot be explained by need
- Lack of evidence to support this
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WILKSTROM
- Turning to Crime: Poverty and Disadvantaged Neighbourhoods: Wilkstrom
- 1957 students from 13 state schools in Peterborough
- Cross-sectional snapshot
- 92% response rate
- Space-and-time-budget analysis
- 20% of original sample was interviewed about a week's activity
- Data obtained from the 1991 census
- Propensity induced: It is a personality characteristic to offend
- Lifestyle dependent: Those with a high-risk lifestyle will offend, those with a low-risk lifestyle rarely do
- Situationally limited: Well-adjusted youths who only offend when they get into bad situations
- Messner (1988): The higher the structural poverty, the higher the crime rate
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GUDJONSSON AND BOWNES
- Turning to Crime: Cognition: Social Cognition
- Heider: Attributions can either be situational or dispositional. They can lead to a fundamental attribution error
- 80 criminals from Northern Ireland, mean age 28
- 42-item Gudjonsson Blame Attribution Inventory
- Guilt, mental element, internal/external
- Violent (20), sexual (40) and property crimes (20)
- Sex offenders felt the most guilt (12.7)
- Cross validated earlier findings of an English sample
- Violent Irish prisoners attributed their crimes more to external factors
- Links to Rotter's locus of control
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YOCHELSON AND SAMENOW
- Turning to Crime: Cognition: Criminal Thinking Patterns
- Cornish and Clark: Criminal behaviour is a result of a rational thinking process; criminals have reasoned and thought about committing their crimes prior to committing them
- 255 male criminals, half of which had pleaded NGRI
- Longitudinal study, which lasted over 14 years, during their time working in a mental hospital
- Only 30 completed all of the interviews (attrition)
- Freudian-based therapy to find a root cause of behaviour did not work
- 52 thinking errors created instead e.g. lacking empathy, habitually aggressive, feeling under no obligation to anyone or anything except their own interests
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RAINE
- Turning to Crime: Biology: Brain Dysfunction
- Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity (NGRI)
- Reasons for insanity included schizophrenia, head injury and personal disorders
- 39 men, 2 women + control group
- Participants matched for age and sex
- Participants with schizophrenia were matched with other people with the same diagnosis but had no history of murder
- All participants were kept medication free for the two weeks before the brain scanning
- Injected with a glucose tracker
- Positron Emission Tomography - compared on glucose metabolism
- Continuous performance task performed for 32 minutes
- Less activity in the prefrontal cortex (controls primal urges)
- Less activity in the left side of the amygdala (controls fear) and hippocampus
- Less activity in the corpus callosum (inability to grasp long-term implications of a situation)
- Increased activity in the right side of the amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus
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WILSON AND DALY
- Turning to Crime: Biology: Sex Differences
- Typically an 80/20 split between the males and femaled who are convicted of committing a crime
- Evolutionary theory
- Male role of hunter and gatherer predisposes them to more risky behaviour
- Cross-sectional snapshot (varying levels of social and economic prosperity)
- Data analysis of homocide cases in Detroit from police records
- Overwhlemingly committed by unmarried, unemployed, young males
- Most concerned showing off, retaliation or jealousy
- Young male offenders had a 'short term horizon'
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BRUNNER
- Turning to Crime: Biology: Genes and Serotonin
- MonoAmineOxidaseA deficiency caused an excess of serotonin
- 5 males from a family in the Netherlands
- 2 carrier females and 1 non-carrier female were used as a control group and compared to 3 clinically affected males
- Quasi experiemnt
- Urine samples
- Inability to control aggression caused criminal behaviour
- Not all the men in the family were afflicted with the inability to control their aggression, even if they suffered mental retardation
- Price: Male chromosome becomes XYY (The Super Male Gene). 28% in the hospitals had this compared to 0.1% in the population
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FISHER
- Making a Case: Interviewing Witnesses: Cognitive Interview
- An interview attempts to elicit as much valid and accurate person from a person or witness as possible
- Incorrect eyewitness testimonies have led to more miscarriages of justice than all other factors combined
- Interview similarity
- Focused retrieval
- Extensive retrieval
- Witness-compatible questioning
- 16 detectives from Florida
- 7 trained in CI techniques
- Extracted 63% more accurate information
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FROWD/BRUCE
- Making a Case: Interviewing Witnesses: Recognising Faces
- Experiment 1: 30 participants from Stirling University
- Had to match composites with target photos
- Group 1 - complete, group 2 - internal features, group 3 - external features
- Experiment 2: 48 participants from Stirling University
- Had to match composite to face in line-up
- Group 1 - internal features, group 2 - external
- External features were more accurately matched
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LOFTUS
- Making a Case: Interviewing Witnesses: Factors Influencing Identification
- Participants were told the study aimed to research proactive interference - deception
- Experiment 1: 36 participants from Washington University
- 18 35-mm slides of a queue in TacoTime. They took out a gun/cheque
- Each slide was shown for 1.5 seconds
- 20-item multiple choice questionnaire
- Had to choose criminal from a 12-person lineup and rate how confident they were (1-6)
- Eye movements measured with a corneal reflection device
- Experiment 2: 80 participants
- Gun group focused on the weapon for longer, making it harder for them to then identify the witness
- Low ecological validity
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GUDJONSSON AND MACKEITH
- Making a Case: Interviewing Suspects: False Confessions
- Types of confession: voluntary, coerced complaint, coerced internalised
- Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale: measured yield and shift
- Narrative paragraph is read to the subject. They report everything they can remember (some leading questions). Told they did it wrong. Do it again.
- FC's confession was coerced compliant
- He was 17 years old
- Accused of two murders
- He was of slightly below average intelligence (IQ of 94)
- His first interview was 14 hours long with no breakes and 5 officers
- He was a stable extravert, yet he scored 10 for suggestibility
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INBAU
- Making a Case: Interviewing Suspects: Interrogating Techniques
- The Reid Technique
- Direct confrontation
- Offer chance for justification
- Interupt denial of guilt
- Stay close and keep eye contact
- Pose the 'alternative question'
- Have a witness to the confession
- Document admission
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MANN
- Making a Case: Interviewing Suspects: Detecting Lies
- 99 police officers from Kent (24 females, 75 males)
- Asked to judge truthfulness of interview videos (54 clips) and how confident they were
- Given a questionnaire about their experience in detecting lies
- Asked what cues they used
- Correlation between accuracy and experience
- Better lie detetors used story cues instead of body cues
- Body cues included gaze and fidgeting
- Story cues included vaguness and contradictions
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CANTER
- Making a Case: Creating a Profile: Case Study
- Canter's circle theory and bottom-up approach
- Operation Hart
- Victims were always women, aged between 15 and 32 and targeted near railway stations in and around London
- John Duffy - confessed to committing 25 offences
- Many similarities between profile and real life
- Lived in Kilburn
- Marital issues
- Few friends
- Martial artist
- Knowledge of railways
- Right handed
- Small and unattractive
- Duffy was caught out of 2000 suspects using this method
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CANTER ET AL.
- Making a Case: Creating a Profile: Top-down Typology
- Content analysis of 100 cases of serial killers in the US
- The third crime committed by each serial killer was analysed using the Crime Classification Manual
- Used Douglas' typology
- In 70% of cases the body was concealed
- In 75% sexual activity occurred
- Statistical analysis failed to separate the variables for organised and disorganised offences clearly
- All of the crimes had to have an organised element to them as they hadn't been caught after three killings
- Personality variables would be a better factor to research
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SNOOK
- Making a Case: Creating a Profile: Bottom-up Approach
- 42 students from Liverpool University
- Given spatial displays and asked to mark where they thought the serial killer lived
- Experimental group were then given feedback
- Both groups completed the task again
- Experimental group were significantly more accurate
- Dragnet was more accurate than either group
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CUTLER
- Reaching a Verdict: Persuading a Jury: Persuasion
- Over 500 undergraduates
- Shown video tape of robbery trial
- WIC: good/poor
- Witness confidence: good/poor
- Expert opinion expressed: yes/no
- Expert testimony: descriptive/statistical
- Questionnaire asked if they thought the defendant was guilty and how confident they were as well as testing how much they could recall
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PENNINGTON AND HASTIE
- Reaching a Verdict: Persuading a Jury: Effect of Order of Testimony
- 130 college students from Northwestern and Chicago University
- Real trial - 119 statements composed
- Listened to this on a tape recording
- Prosecution: story/witness order
- Defense: story/witness order
- Had to reach a verdict and rate confidene on a 5-point scale
- Story order was the most convincing
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PICKEL
- Reaching a Verdict: Persuading a Jury: Inadmissbale Evidence
- Three types of inadmissable evidence: hearsay, previous convictions and evidence obtained illegally
- 236 psychology students from Bali State University
- Listened to tape of trial - accused of stealing $5000 from manager's office
- Witness mentioned past conviction - objection: overruled, sustained and continued, sustained and explained
- Objection should be sustained, but no explanation given
- Broeder: Reactance theory or the 'boomerang effect.' Being instructed to disregard evidence increase the importance of it
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CASTELLOW
- Reaching a Verdict: Witness Appeal: Attractiveness of Defendant
- 145 participants (71 male, 74 female) from East Carolina University
- Read sexual harassment case with photos attached: attractive/unattractive defendant, attractive/unattractive victim
- The photos had previously been classed as attractive or unattractive by a panel of people who rated them on a scale of 1 to 9
- 'Do you think Mr. Radford is guilty of sexual harassment?'
- 11 bipolar scales e.g. dull-exciting, nervous-calm, warm-cold - halo effect
- Attractive defendant - less guilty
- Attractive witness - more guilty
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PENROD AND CUTLER
- Reaching a Verdict: Witness Appeal: Witness Confidence
- Estimator variables: affect the accuracy of eyewitness identifications but cannot be controlled by the criminal justice system e.g. lighting during the crime
- System variables: affect the accuracy of eyewitness identifications but the criminal justice system can control them e.g. instructions given prior to a line-up
- Lab experiment - mock trial
- Shown video of robbery trial
- 9 different variables
- Disguise: heavy/minimal
- Weapon focus: high/low
- Retention interval: 14/2 days
- Confidence: 80/100%
- Witness confidence was the only significant variable that affected the verdict given (guilty/not guilty)
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ROSS ET AL
- Reaching a Verdict: Witness Appeal: Effect of Shields and Videos on Children Giving Evidence
- Researched credibility inflation and deflation
- Giving evidence can be like a second abuse
- 300 psychology students (150 male, 150 female) - white, middle class
- Mock trial based on actual court transcript - professional film crew recorded actors playing the roles
- Alleged abuse with the child's father as the defendant
- Participants watched 2-hour court case
- Judge read a warning directing the jury not to assume guilt by the use of the shield or the video
- Control, shield or video
- No significant difference unless trial stopped early
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ASCH
- Reaching a Verdict: Reaching a Verdict: Majority Influence
- Informative and normative conformity
- 123 male college students - paid $3 for participation
- Groups of 7-9, only 1 naive
- Had to match target line to 1 of 3
- 12/18 trials - group gave a unanimous wrong answer
- 75% conformed at least once
- 68% of answers given were correct cmopared to 98% in the control
- Reasons for conforming included both distortion of perception and demand characteristics
- Kalven: 7/225 criminal cases moved in the direction of the original minority
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HASTIE
- Reaching a Verdict: Reaching a Verdict: Stages in Decision Making
- Social loafing: When individuals in the group are less likely to think for themselves because they are in a group
- Orientation period: The jury engages in a relaxed and open discussion. The agenda is set. Questions are raised
- Open confrontation: Fierce debate. Focus on the details. Explore different interpretations. Pressure to conform and make a group decision
- Reconciliation: Jury smooths over conflicts that have arisen. Tension is released through humour
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NEMETH AND WACHTLER
- Reaching a Verdict: Reaching a Verdict: Minority Influence
- 116 male volunteers from Northwestern University - paid $1.50 for participation
- Had to decide how much compensation to give plantiff
- Minority: head seat/not, autonomy/no autonomy
- Head seat didn't make a significant difference
- Autonomy did make a significant difference
- Moscovici: 2 of the 6 participants were confederates. Shown 36 blude slides. 32% of participants in the consistent condition called at least one sldie green.
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DOOLEY
- After a Guilty Verdict: Imprisonment: Depression/Suicide risk
- Suicide in prison is 4x the rate in the general population: inescapable, intolerable, intermiable
- Factors influencing death: prison situation, outside pressures, guilt for offence, mental illness
- 442 inmates that died an unnatural death
- Content analysis
- More females in CSI group
- Fewer on remand
- Fewer in the night
- Fewer by hanging
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GILLIS AND NAFEKH
- After a Guilty Verdict: Imprisonment: Plans After Jail
- 23,500 offenders from Canada
- 65% reoffend
- Matched pairs content analysis
- Matched on gender, sentence length, release year, substance use, marital status etc.
- Experimental group employed on special programme
- Employed men and women less likely to recommit
- Azjen: Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned Behaviour. A prisoner's intention to stay out of prison is key to success. Their intention will be influenced by the value of thier life outside the prison
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ZIMBARDO
- After a Guilty Verdict: Imprisonment: The Prison Situation and Roles
- 24 well-adjusted males paid $15 a day
- Uniforms caused deindividuation
- Guards had a khaki shirt, trousers, wooden baton and reflective sunglasses
- Prisoners had a muslin smock with identification number, no underwear, flimsy sandals
- Guards became more and more aggressive - "pathology of power"
- Prisoners experienced extreme emotional depression
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EBERHARDT
- After a Guilty Verdict: Alternatives to Imprisonment: Looking Deathworthy
- African-Americans - 12% of population, 41% of those executed
- 51 participants, mostly white from Stanford University
- Rated 44 faces for "blackness" on a scale of 1-11
- Photographs were standardised and shown in a different order to prevent order effects
- Each face shown for 4 seconds
- 24% in lower half sentenced to death
- 58% in upper half
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MAIR AND MAY
- After a Guilty Verdict: Alternatives to Imprisonment: Probation
- Almost 2,00 offenders (61% response rate)
- Study piloted with a survey on 7 different probation offices - questionnaire improved
- Interviews conducted by an independently employed researcher
- Mainly closed questions e.g. Likert scales or multiple choice
- 88% said they found thier probation officer useful
- 37% said it would stop them from re-offending
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SHERMAN AND STRANG
- After a Guilty Verdict: Alternatives to Imprisonment: Restorative Justice
- Meta-analysis - Australia, New Zealand, USA, Canada, UK
- Advantages of RJ:
- Reduced reoffending for violent crimes
- Reduced post-traumatic stress for victims
- Preferred by both victim and offender
- Costs less than criminal justice
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CANN
- After a Guilty Verdict: Treatment Programmes: Cognitive Skills Programmes
- 180 offenders: ETS or R&R
- 540 particpants as control group
- Expected and actual reconviction rates calculated for 2 years after they left
- Did not make a significant difference
- Friendship found that there was a significant difference for men
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IRELAND
- After a Guilty Verdict: Treatment Programmes: Anger Management
- Calming Anger and Learning to Manage it
- 50 male prisoners that had completed calm
- 37 male prisoners that were suitable but had not completed it
- Wing Behavioural Checklist: 29 angry behaviours, rate 0,1 or 2
- Self-report questionnaires
- 92% showed improvement in at least one
- 48% in both
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WHEATLEY
- After a Guilty Verdict: Treatment Programmes: Ear Accupuncture
- Volunteer sample of 350 men in high-security prisons + a control group
- Four week period
- Experimental group got ear accupuncture 2x a week + FOCUS programme
- Control group only got the care programme
- Experimental group more calm, better sleep etc.
- 25% v. 43% improved symptoms
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KOHLBERG
- Turning to Crime: Cognition: Moral Development
- 58 boys from Chicago of w/c and m/c
- Aged 7, 10, 13 and 16
- Boys followed up at 3 year intervals, hence the study is longitudinal
- 2-hour interview
- 10 dilemmas, including the Heinz Dilemma
- Pre-conventional level: Driven by punishment and self-interest
- Conventional level: Interpersonal-conformity and authority
- Post-conventional: Social contract and universal ethical principle
- The older the boys got, the further up the stages they reached
- There was no support for the 6th stage
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