Forensic psychology

Offender profilling- narrow the field of enquiry and list of the suspects. Employed to work alongside the police. The scene and evidence are anaylsed to generate hypotheses of the characteristics

Organised offenders- evidence of planning the crime, high degree of control during the crime and little evidence left behind the scene, above average IQ, usually married and may even have children

Disorganised offenders- little evidence of planning, crime reflects the impulsive nature of the act, below average IQ, a history of failed relationships

Four main stages in the constuction of an FBI profile- Data assimilation, crime scene classifications, crime reconstruction and profile generation

Limitation- TD profiling only applies to particular crimes- not common offences

Limitation-based on outdated models of personality- driven by dispositional traits

Limitation- Little support for the idea of the disorganised offender- Canter et al- smallest space A.

Limitation- Classification system is too simplistic- more detailed typologies

Bottom up approach- Offender profile emerges based on the data

Statistical procedures detect patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur, the statistical database acts as a baseline for comparison

Interpersoanl coherence- the way an offender behaves at the scene, including how they interact with the victim, may reflect their behaviour in everyday situations

The locations of the crime scene are used to infer the likely home of the offender (crime mapping). Canter and Larkin proposed two models of offender beaviour; maurauder (operates close to home basis) and the commuter (likely to have travelled distance away from home)

Strength- Evidence supports investigative psychology- content analysis of 66 SA using SSA

Strength- support for geographical profiling- Canter collected info from 120 murder cases

Strength- scinetific basis, more objective, geographical & biographicala data to assist investigation

Limitation- mixed results for profiling- significant failures, only accurate in 3% of cases

Lombroso- criminals were genetic throwbacks, biologically different from non criminals. 

Offenders were believed to lack evolutionary development. Their savage and untamed nature means being socialised into civilised society is difficult. Lombroso saw criminal bheaviour as innate

Atavistic characteristics are biologically determined. For example; a narrow sloping brow, a strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones and facial asymmetry. Particukar crimes had a particular criminal for example murderers were described as having blood shot eyes, curly hair and long ears

Strength-large contribution to criminology- 'father as criminology', heralded the beginning of C.P

Limitation- racial undertones- characteristics found among African descent, intention is unclear

Limitation- contradictory evidence- IQ is a factor, this does not take into account apperance

Limitation- poor control in Lombroso's research- didnt compare criminal sample with control group

Limitation- causation is a problem- Facial and cranial differences may be due to poverty or diet

Twin and adoption studies suggest genes predispose offenders to crime. 13 MZ twins and 17 DZ twins were studied with one twin who had spent time in prison. Crowe found that adopted children who had a biological parent with a criminal record had a 50% greater risk of a criminal record by 18.

Candidate genes- MAOA gene controls serotonin and dopamine linked to aggressive behaviour, CDH13 is linked to substance abuse and ADHD- 13 times more likely tohave a history of violence

Diathesis stress model- tendency to criminal behaviour

APD- neural differences in the brains of criminals and non criminals. Less activity in the prefrontal cortex, there is less emotional regulation. Mirror neurons, switch on and off empathy

Limitation- methodological problems- poorly controlled, confoundig variables

Strength- support for diathesis -stress- genetic inheritance and environmental influence

Limitation- biologically reductionist- genetic and neural explanations in isolation are too simplistic

Limitation- bioogically determinist- 'criminal gene' - someone can claim they have no free will

Three personality dimensions: Introversion-extraversion, Neuroticism- Stability and Psychoticism- Socialisation

Eysenck suggested personality types are innate and based on the nervous systems we inherit. 

Extraverts- underactive nervous system, seek excitement, engage in risk taking

Neurotic- high level of reactivity in the sympathtic nervous system- nervous, jumpy and over-anxious

Psychotic-higher levels of testosterone- cold, unemotional and prone to aggression

Criminal behaviour- combination of extravert, neurotic and psychoticism.

Strength-evidence supporting- EPI scales from male prisoners and CG- prisoners scored higher

Limitation- only one single criminal type- Digmans five factor model- suggests 3 additional dimensions

Limitation- cultural bias- African-American, Hispanic offenders less extravert

Limitation- mismeasurement of personality- cannot reduce personality type to a score

Kohlberg proposed that poeples decisions and judgements are based on moral developement.

Criminals tend to be at a pre-conventional level. Pre-conventional level is characterised by a need to avoid punishments and gain rewards,less mature and child-like reasoning. Offenders may commit crime if they can get away with it.

Offenders are more egocentric and show less empathy- self-centred and poorer social perspective

Faulty and biased thinking helps criminals justify their behaviour. Violent offenders were more likely than non offenders to perceive ambiguous facial expressions such as angry and hostile. Offenders misread non-aggressive cues triggering a violent response. Minimalisation reduces guilt.

Strength- evidence supporting-moral-dilemma questions, offenders showed less mature MR

Limitation- better theories of MR- Mature vs immature, post-conventional level should be abandoned

Strength- applications to cognitive distortions- help treat offenders, CBT

Limitation-individual differences- different crime, financial gain crimes more likely for pre-conventional

Sutherland- Scientifc principles to explain types of offending,with clear cause and effect the backgrounds of people who become criminals or didnt . His theory ignored race,class,ethnicity

Crime is learned through interactions with significant others- Criminality arises from two factors; learned attitudes towards crime and learning of specific acts

Crime occurs if pro-crime values outweighs anti crime values. D.A proposes that it should be possible to mathematically predict how likely it is that the individual will commit crime

Both criminal techniques and attitudes are learned. Reoffending may be due to socialisation in prison

Strength-explanatory power- accounts for crime in all sectors, working class and middle class crimes

Strength- overall contribution- movede emphasis away from biological factors, Lombroso

Limitation- difficulty of testing the theory- unclear how to measure the numbers of pro/anti crime

Limitation- alternative explanations- family attitudes are crucial 

Sutherland- Scientifc principles to explain types of offending,with clear cause and effect the backgrounds of people who become criminals or didnt . His theory ignored race,class,ethnicity

Crime is learned through interactions with significant others- Criminality arises from two factors; learned attitudes towards crime and learning of specific acts

Crime occurs if pro-crime values outweighs anti crime values. D.A proposes that it should be possible to mathematically predict how likely it is that the individual will commit crime

Both criminal techniques and attitudes are learned. Reoffending may be due to socialisation in prison

Strength-explanatory power- accounts for crime in all sectors, working class and middle class crimes

Strength- overall contribution- movede emphasis away from biological factors, Lombroso

Limitation- difficulty of testing the theory- unclear how to measure the numbers of pro/anti crime

Limitation- alternative explanations- family attitudes are crucial 

Inadequate superego leads to immoral behaviour- superego is guided by the morality principle, if superego is inadequate then the id is given free reign

Weak superego- absence of same sex parent in phallic stage, the child fails to internalise a fully formed superego, no opportunity for indentification.

Deviant superego- child internalises deviant values, if parent is deviant child will be too

Overharsh superego- Criminal acts satsify the need for punishment- crippled by guilt and anxiety

Loss of attachment- leads to affectionless psychopathy- maternal deprivation. 44 theives study

Limitation- gender bias- assumes girls develop a weaker superego- dont experience castration anx

Limitation- contradictory evidence- influence of genetics and socialisation

Limitation- lack of falsfiability- unconscious concepts mean crime cannot be empirically tested

Limitation- Bowlbys research- researcher bias in 44 thieves study, deprivation is not inevitable

Deterrence- unpleasant experience of prison is designed to put the individual off, sends message to society that crime will not be tolerated (general deterrence)

Incapacitation- protect the public by removing criminals, depends on the severity of the crime

Retribution- Revenge against the offender, proportionate to the severity of the crime

Rehabilitation- reform of the offender, prison should provide opportunity to develop skills, treatments

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing- stress & depression, institutionalisation and prisonisation.

Limitation-Psychological effects- suicide rates among offenders are 15 times higher

Limitation- effect of individual differences- prison is damaging for many but not all

Strength- opportunity for rehabilitation-access education, training and anger management 

Limitation- 'universities for crime'- undergo a more dubious edcuation, differential association

Behaviourist approach- behaviour is learned, so can be unlearned. 

Token economy- modify behaviours with operant conditioning, desirbale behaviours are rewarded, tokens can be exchanged for something more valuable like a phone call to loved ones. Tokens are secondary reinforcers and may be removed for disobedience

Desirable behaviours are broken down into increments. Prison staff must selectively reinforce the identified behaviours

Strength- easy to implement- cost effective, easy to follow once designed. needs consistency

Limitation- little rehabilitative value- positive changes in prison may be lost when the prisoner has left

Limitation- ethical issues raised- regarded as manipulative, dehumanising, participation obligatory

Limitation- learning is superficial- encourages passive learning and focuses on surface behaviours

Strength- individual tailored programmes can be effective-  rewards more frequent and immediate

Cognition triggers emtoions that trigger aggression- anger is quick to surface in situations that are threatening or anxiety-inducing. 

CBT- recognise the cognitive factors that trigger their anger and loss of control, develop behavioural techniques  that bring about conlict-resolution without the need for violence

Stage 1- congitive preparation (refection of the past) , stage 2- skill aquisition (self-talk, behavioural assertiveness training, methods of relaxation), stage 3- application practice- ('roleplay'- practice skill)

positive outcomes- progress of young offenders between 17 and 21, took part in 8, 2 hour sessions of A.M, offedners generally reported increased awareness of their anger and capacity for control.

Strength- eclectic approach, works on different levels, social approach is adopted when offenders are required to demonstrate what they have learned

Strength- tries to tackle causes- addresses the thought processes underlying offending behaviour

Limitation- anger management has short effects, little evidence it reduces recidivism in long term

Crime against an individual rather than crime against state- switch emphasis to the victim of the crime

Victim takes active role, offender sees the consequences of their actions. Offenders are required to take responsibility for what they have done. a supervised meeting between the two parties is arranged

A healing process- 'crime hurts, justice should heal'- victim feels more empowered 

RJ programme key features- acceptance of responsibility, non-courtroom setting, active rather than passive involvement, focus on positive outcomes

Restorative justice council is an independent body- establish clear standards, support victims.

Strength- diversity in RJ programmes- flexible, covers a wide range of possible application

limitation- reliance on the offender showing remorse- some offenders sign up for reduced sentence

Limitation- may not always be cost-effective, requires input of skilled individual act as a mediator

Limitation- feminist critique- legislative ban for domestic violence cases- power imbalance