Feminist Theories of Religion

• Feminists - Religion is a patriarchal institution that perpetuates inequality. Beliefs function as patriarchal ideology that legitimates female subordination. 
• Religious organisations - Male-dominated, yet women participate more than men in church, orthodox Judaism & Catholicism forbid women to become priests. Karen Armstrong sees this as evidence for women's marginalisation. 
• Places of worship - Segregate the sexes and marginalise women by seating them behind screens whilst men take more sacred places. Women are restricted from preaching and in Islam menstruating women are not allowed to touch the Qur'an, Jean Holm describes this as the devaluation of women in religion. 
• Sacred texts - Feature the doings of male gods/prophets and were written & interpreted by men. Stories reflect anti-female streotypes, e.g, Eve who caused humanity's fall from grace and expulsion from the Garden of Eden.
• Religious laws & customs - Women have less rights in divorce, how many spouses they may marry and dress code. Religion influences FGM & other cultural norms that lead to unequal treatment or punishment for women.
• The Catholic church - Bans abortion and artificial contraception, encouraging women's domestic and reproductive role. Woodhead argues that women being excluded from catholic priesthood is evidence of the church's deep unease of female emancipation.

• Karen Armstrong - Women have not always been subordinate to men in religions, early religions placed women at the centre, e.g mother goddesses & female priesthood throughout the Middle East over 6000 years ago. 
• Nawal El Saadawi - Religion may be used to oppress women but it is not the direct cause of women's opression, instead the rise of patriarchal society is & monotheism was created by this, legitimising male power over women. 

Religious forms of feminism

• Linda Woodhead - Hijab/veil worn by Muslim women can be seen as liberating.
• Sophie Gilliat-Ray - Some women choose to wear the hijab because it earns them parental approval and access to further education and employment. Allows them to enter the public sphere without being seen as immodest.
• Women use religion to gain status and respect for their roles in the private sphere of home and family.
• Elisabeth Brusco - Belonging to a Pentacostal group can be empowering for some women. Pentecostals strongly believe that men should respect women, giving women the power to influence men making them refrain from 'macho' behaviour. They are also able to share experiences and find support in the church, e.g in Bible study groups.

• Piety movements  (Rachel Rinaldo) - There are conservative movements that support traditional teachings about women's role, modest dress, prayer and Bible study. Most conservative religions help women find ways to further their interests, particularly middle-class urban women, however they also have good education & income to help with this. 
• Liberal Protestant organisations - The Quakers & the Unitarians are committed to gender equality and women playing leading roles, e.g, 1/3 of Unitarian ministers are female and the COFE has had female (1/5) priests since 1992 and female bishops since 2015.