Family- demogrpahy

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Demography- births- card 1

What is the birth rate defined as?

The number of live births per thousand of the population per year.

What has happened to the pattern of birth rates?

There has been a long term decline in the number of births since 1900. In 1900 the birth rate was 28.7 but in 2014 it has fallen to an estimated 12.2.

Why have there been flucuations in birth rates?

Due to three baby booms in the 20th century, first 2 came after the 2 world wars and agin in the 1960's.

What are the factors which determine birth rates?

The proporion of women of childbearing age and how fertle they are.

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Demography- births- card 2

What is the total fertility rate?

The total feritlity rate is the average number of children a women will have during their fertile years.

What is the total fertility rate?

It has risen in recent years but is still much lower than in the past. From an all time low of  1.63 children per women in 2001, it rose to 1.83 by 2014.

What do the changed in fertility and birth rates reflect?

  • More women are remianing childless than in the past.
  • Women are postponing having children- the average age for a woman to give birth is now 30 and fertility rate in the 30's and 40's is now rising. 
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Demography- births- card 3

What changes in position have women experienced which explain the decline in birth rate?

  • Legal equality with men- right to vote.
  • Increased education opportunities- girls now do better than boys in education.
  • More women are in paid work, plus there are now laws outlawing unequal pay and sex discrimination.
  • Changes in attitudes to family life and womens roles.
  • Easier access to divorce.
  • Access to divorce and reliable contraception- which gives women control over their fertility. 

What does harper say is the most important reason for the long-term fall in birth and fertility rates?

Harper says the education of women is the most important reason, it has led to a change in mindset among women, which results in fewer children. Educated women are more likely to use family planning, and now see other opportunities in life rather than just being a housewife. Many are delaying having children or choosing not to have children at all to pursue careers.  

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Demography- births- card 4

What is the infant morality rate?

The IMR measures the number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive, per year.

How has the fall in the IMR effected the fall in birth rate?

The fall in the infant morality rate has led to a fall in birth rate, because if  many children die parents have more children to replace those they have lost which increases the birth rate, however if infants survive parents have fewer of them. 

Why did the UK's IMR begin to fall in the 20th century?

  • Improved hosuing and sanitation, such as flushing toilets and clean water, this reduced infectious disease which infants are more suseptible to.
  • Better nutrition-  including the nutrition of mothers.
  • Better knowledge of hygeine, child health and welfare.
  • A fall in the number of married women wotking may have improved their health and that of their baby
  • Improved services for mothers and babies- antenatal and postnatal clinics.
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Demography- births- card 5

How did medical factors play a role in lowering the IMR?

Medical factors played a major role- for example, the mass immunisation aganst childhood diseases such as whooping cough, diphtheria and measles, as well as the use of antibiotics and improved midwifery techniques.

Children are now an economic liability why is this and why has this effected birth rates?

  • Laws banning child labour were introdced, as well as compulsory schooling and raising the school leaving age- meaning children stay economically dependent on their parents for longer.
  • Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents in mateiral terms, which means the cost of raising a child has risen.
  • These financial pressurs mean parents are less willing to have a large family.

How has an increased in child-centeredness effected birth rate?

Increased child-centeredness has encourage a shift from quantity to quality- parents now have  less children and lavish more attention and resources on these few.

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Demography- births- card 6

Why have birth rates increased slightly since 2001?

Due to the increase of immigration, as on average mothers born outside of the UK have a higher fertility rate.

What is the effect of changing fertility rates on the family?

There are smaller fmailies, which mean women are more likely to be free to go out to work, therefoore creating a dual earner couple which is typical of many professional families. 

How have the changes in the fertility rate effected the dependency ratio?

Children make up a large part of the dependency ratio, so  a fall in the number of children reduces the burden of dependency on the worrking population. However, in the long term fewer babies will mean fewer young adults and a smaller working poplation, so the burden of dependency may increase again.

How do the changes in fertility rates effect children?

Fewer children means childhood becomes lonlier and fewer voices to speak up for childrens interests.

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Demography- births- card 7

How does the lower birth rate effect public services?

Fewer schools and maternity services willbe needed. It will also affect the cost of maternity and paternity leave and the ype of houses needed to be built. 

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Demography- deaths- card 1

What is the death rate and has it risen or declined?

Th death rate is the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year. The death rate has more than halved since 1900 where it was 19, now it is 8.9

According to Tranter why was there a decline in death rate?

he said  3/4 of the decline in death ratw was due to the dall in the number of deaths from infectious diseases, such as smallpox, mealses, dipheria, typhoid and TB. Diseases of affluence such as heaart disease and cancers has replaeced infectious diseases as the main cause of death.

How did imporved nutrition help with the decline in death rate?

McKeown argues that improved nutrition accounted for up to hald the reduction in death rates, and was particulary important in reducing the deaths from TB. Improved nutrition increased resitence to infection and increased survival chances of those who did become infected.

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Demography- deaths- card 2

How did medical improvements help to reduce the death rate?

Medical advances included, the introduction of antibiotics, immunisation, blood transfusions, improved maternity services and the setting up of the NHS. Recently by-pass surgery has reduced deaths from heart disease by a third. 

How did changes in smoking and diiet patterns help to reduce the death rate?

Harper believes the greatest fall in death rates is due to the reduction in the number of people smoking. However, obesity has now replaced smokingas the new lifestyle epidemic. However, deaths due to obesity have remained low due to medical improvements in treatment. 1/4 of all UK adults are obese.

How have changes in public health measures helped to reduce the death rate?

There have been improvements iin hosing, purer drinking water, laws to combat the adulteration of food and drink, the pasturerisation of milk, and improved sewage disposal methods. E.g. the clean are act reduced pollution. 

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Demography- deaths- card 3

What other social changes have played a part in reducing the death rate?

  • The decline of dangerous manual occupations such as mining.
  • Smaller families which has reduced the rate of transmiission of infection.
  • Greater public knowledge of the cuases of illnesses.
  • Lifestyle chnages.
  • Higher incomes allowing for healthier lifestyles.

What is life expectancy?

Life expectancy refers to how long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live.

As death rates have fallen what has happened to the life expectancy pattern?

Life expectancy has increased by 2 years per decade over the past 2 centuries. Life expectancy is now 90.7 years for males and 94 years for females. 

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Demography- the ageing population- card 1

What three factors is the ageing population caused by?

  • Increasing life expectancy- people are living longer into old age.
  • Declining infant morality rate- hardly anyone dies in early life.
  • Declining fertility- fewer young people are being born in relation to the number of older people in the population. 

How does the ageing population effect public services?

Older people consuume a larger proportion of service such as health and social care than other groups. This particulary true of the old old 75+. This results in increased expenditure which can also result in changed to policies and provion of houses, transport and other services. 

What has an increase in the ageing population led to an increase in?

One person pensioner households which now account for 12.5% of all households.

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Demography- the ageing population- card 2

How has an increase in the ageing popualtion effected the dependency ratio?

The old are an economically dependent group who need providing for by working age individuals, e.g. through tax to pay for pensions and health care. As the number of retired people increases the dependency ratio increases. However, the number of depndent adults is offset by the declining number of dependent children. 

What so sociologists in modern society argue ageism is a result of?

Result of structured dependency- the old are largely excluded fro paid work, leaving them economically dependent on their family or the state.

In modern society what is our identity determined by?

Our role in prodution, those exlcuded by compusory retirenment have a dependent status and stigmintised identity.  

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Demography- the ageing population- card 3

From a marxist perspective what does Phillipson argue about people of old age?

He argues that the old are of no use to capitalism as they are no  longer productive. As a result, the state is unwilling to support them so the family especially female relatives have to  take repsonsiblity for their care.

In modern society why is age important?

Age becomes important in role allocation, creating fixed life atges and age-related indentities, such as a pensioner. The old are therefore excluded from a role in the labour force so are dependent and powerless. 

What is key to out indentities in postmodern society?

Cosumption- we can now define ourselves by what we consume. Hunt argues this means we can choose a lifestyle and indentity no matter what our age is. 

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Demography- the ageing population- card 4

What does the indentitiy of consumption result in?

The old become a vast market for body maintenence and rejuvination food and services through which they can create their identity. The includes, cosmetic surgey, exercise equipment, gym memberships and anti-ageing prodcuts. 

What two features of postmodern society undermine old age as a stigmitised life stage?

  • The centeality of the media- media now portray positive aspects of the lifestyles of the elderly.
  • Emphasis on surface features the body becomes a surface on which we can write our identities.

What inequality is there amongst the old?

  • Class inequality- the middle class have better occupational pensions and greater savings from higher salaries. Poorer older people have a shorter life expectancy. 
  • Genderr- womens low earnings and career breaks menas lower pensions. There is also sexist ageist stereotyping against women- describing them as old hags.

Postmodernists underestimate the importance of such inequalities.

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Demography- the ageing population- card 5

What policies will need to change to tackle the new problems posed by the ageing population?

  • How to finance the longer period of old age- this can be done by paying more from our savings whislt working or working for longer.
  • Housing policies may need to be introduced to encourage older people to trade down into smaller accomodation. This would release wealth to improve the standard of living. 
  • There also needs to be a culltural change in our attitudes towards old age.
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Demography- migration- card 1

Defintion of immigration?

Refers to movement into a society.

Defintion of emigration?

Movement out of a society.

What is net migration?

The difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigants, and is expressed as a net increase or a net decrease.

What immigrant groups were there from 1900- WWII?

  • Irish- for economic reasons.
  • Eastern and central Enurpean Jews- reugees feeling persecution.
  • People from canada and the USA
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Demography- migration- card 2

What immigrant groups were there during the 1950's?

  • Black immigrants from the Caribbean.
  • Followed by south Asain immigrants from india, Pakistan, Bangldesh, and sri lanka in the 0's and 70's
  • East African Asians from kenya and uganda.

What is a consequence of immigration?

An ethnically diverse society, by 2011 ethnic minority groups accounted for 14% of the population. 

What are the main reasons for emigration from the UK?

  • Push factors- such as economic recessions and unemployment at home.
  • Pull factors- such as higher wages and better opportunities abroad. 
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Demography- migration- card 3

How has immigration and emigration effected the UK's population size?

The population size is currently growing.

  • Net migration is high- there are more immigrants than emigrants.
  • There is also a natural increase- with births exceeding deaths- births to non- UK mothers are higher.

How has immigration and emigration effected the age structure?

Immigration lowers the average age of the popualtion directly and indirectly:

  • Directly- immigrants  are genrally youger.
  • Indirectly- being younger means immigrants are more fertile so produce more babies.

How does immigration effect the dependency ratio?

  • Immigrants are more likely to be of working age which lowers the DR.
  • However, as they are younger they have more children whcih increases the DR.
  • The longer a group is settled in a country, the closer their fertility rate comes to the national average, reducing the overall impact on the DR.
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Demography- globalisation and migration- card 1

What is the defintion of globalisation?

The idea that barriers between societies are disappearing and people are becoming increasingly interconnected across national boundaries. 

What does the acceleration of migration mean?

There has been a speeding up of the rate of migraition. E.g. between 2000 and 2014 international migration increased by 33%.

What does the differentiation of migration mean?

There are now many types of different migrant. Inclsuding permanenet settlers, temporary workrs, spouses and forced migrants such as refugees and asylum seekers. Some have legal entitlement whilst others enter without permission.

What increases the diversity of migrants?

Globalisation e.g. there are now many chinese born postgraduate students in the UK.

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Demography- globalisation and migration- card 2

What is super-diversity?

Vertovec came uup with super-diversity, which is the idea that migrants now come from a much wider range of countries, even in a single ethnic group individuals differ in terms of their legal status: e.g. citizens of spouses.

What are the three types of migrant identified by Cohen?

  • Citizen- with full citizenship rights, e.g. voting rights.
  • Denizen- priveledged foreigh nationals welcomed by the state, e,g, billionaires.
  • Helots- most exploited group, regarded as sipposable labour. Found in unskilled, poorly paid work and include ilegally trafficked workers. 

Why has there been a feminsiation of migratio?

Half of all global migrants are female, female migrants find they arre fitted into the patriachal stereotype about womens toles as carers or providers of sexual services.

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Demography- globalisation and migration- card 3

Ouutline the work of Ehrenreich and Hochschild 2013?

They observed that care work, domestic wotk and sex work in Western countries in the Uk and USA is iincreasingly done by women from poor countries, This is the result of several trends:

  • The expansion of service occupations, has led to an increase in demand for female labour.
  • Western womenare less willing to perform domestic labour as they have joined the laboour force. 
  • Western men remain unwilling to perform domestic labour.
  • The failure of the state to provide adequate childcare.

What is a hybrid indentity wchih migrants may develop?

Hybrid identities are made up of two or more different sources. E.g ease found 2nd generation Bangladeshi muslims in Britaincreated hierarchial indentities: they saw themselves as muslim first, the Bengali and then British. 

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Demography- globalisation and migration- card 3

Ouutline the work of Ehrenreich and Hochschild 2013?

They observed that care work, domestic wotk and sex work in Western countries in the Uk and USA is iincreasingly done by women from poor countries, This is the result of several trends:

  • The expansion of service occupations, has led to an increase in demand for female labour.
  • Western womenare less willing to perform domestic labour as they have joined the laboour force. 
  • Western men remain unwilling to perform domestic labour.
  • The failure of the state to provide adequate childcare.

What is a hybrid indentity wchih migrants may develop?

Hybrid identities are made up of two or more different sources. E.g ease found 2nd generation Bangladeshi muslims in Britaincreated hierarchial indentities: they saw themselves as muslim first, the Bengali and then British. 

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Demography- globalisation and migration- card 4

Whats a transantional idenity?

Due to back and forth migration, migrants are less likely to see themselebes as belonging to one culture or country. Therefore, they may develop transantional identities or loyalties. 

How does globalisation help tocreate a transnational identity?

Modern technology amkes it ppossible to sustain global ties, the globaalised economy also means mgrants may have ,inks with other migrants around the world from their country of origin for example. 

What is assimilation and how can it be criticised?

The first state policy approach to immigration, it aimed to encouurage immigrants to adopt the language, values and customs of the host culture to make them more like us. However, it faces the problem that transnational migrants with hybrid identities mat not be willing to abandon their culture.

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Demography- globalisation and migration- card 5

What is multiculturalism?

It accpets the idea that migrants may wish to retain a seperate cultural identitiy. however, this may be limite to superficial aspects of diviersity.

What is shallow and deep diveristy?

  • Shallow- such as regarrding chicken tikkka masalaa as Britains national dish- is acceptable to the state.
  • Deep- arranged marriages- not acceptable to the state.

How can multiculturalism policies be criticised?

Castles argues the policies are counter-productive as they mark out minority groups as culturally backwards, which causes marginisaltion.

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