Family- changing family patterns

What changes have their been in the patterns of divorce?

There has been an increase in the number of divorces in the UK. The number of divorces doubled between 1961 and 1969 and doubled again by 1972. The upward tren continued and peaked in 1993 at 165,000. 

How has the pattern contiued to change?

Since then numbers have fallen somehwhat, but still stood at 118,000 in 2012 6x higher than in 1961. This rate means that 40% of all amrriages end in divorce. This fall is due to the fact that fewer people are marrying in the first place and are instead cohabitating. 

What couples are most likely to get a divorce?

• Those who marry young.
• Those who have a child before they marry.
• Those who cohabit before marriage.
• Thos where onne or both partners have been married before.

What changes have been made to the law which explain the increase in divorce?

• Equalising the grounds for divorce between the 2 sexes.-Which was followed by a sharp increase in the number of divorce petitions from women. 
• Widening the grrounds for divorce.-The widening of the grounds to irretrievable breakdown has made divorces easier to obtain.
• Making divorce cheaper.- The introduction of legal aid made divorce cheaper.

What are other solutions to an unhappy marriage?

• Desertion- where one partner leaves the other but the couple remain legally married.
• Legal seperation- where a court sepearates the financial and legal affairs of the couple, but the couple remain married and are not free to remarry.
• Empty shell marriage- where the couple continue to live under the same route but are married in name only. 

What is a stigma?

Stigma refers to the negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action or relationship. 

How has a decline in stigma increased divorce rates?

As the stigma declines and divorce becomes more socially acceptable, couples are willing to resort to dvorce as a means of solving their marital problems. The fact that divorce is more common begins to normalise it and reduces the stigma attached to it. Divorce is now regarded as a misfortune.

What does secularisation mean?

Secularisation refers to the decline in the influence of religion in society. 

How has secularisation increased divorce rates?

The traditional opposition of religion to divorce carries less weight in society and people are therefore less likely to eb influenced by relgious teachings when making decisions about personal matters, such as whether to file for divorce. Many churches have also began to soften their views on divorce and divorcees.

How have rising expectations of marriage increased divorce rates?

Flethcer argues people place higher expectations on marriage now causing a rise in divorce rates. These higher expectations make couples less willing t tolerate an unhappy marriage. This can be linked to the ideology of romantic love, this is the idea that marriage is based soley on love and everyone has a soulmate. Therefore, if love dies there is no longer a justification for remianing married and every reason to divorce so as to be able to renew the search for ones true soulmate. 

What changes have there been in marriage?

Marriage is viewd as a relationship in which individuals seek personal fulfilment, this encourages couples to divorce if they do not find it.

Why do functionalists still take an optimistic veiw on marriage?

They point to the continuing popularity of marriage, most adults marry and the high rate of re-marriage shows that although divorcees may be dissatisfied with a particularr partner they have not rejected marriage as an instiution.

How do feminist's criticise this optimistic view?

They argue this is too rosy a view, they argue the opression od women within the family is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce, but functionalists ignore this. 

How has womens increase financial independence increased divorce rates?

• Women today are more likely to be in paid work- working women rose from 53%-67%.
• Equal pay act and anti-discrimination laws has helped to narrow the pay gap.
• Girls success in educatiom allows females to achieve better paid jobs.
• Welfare benefits mean women do not have to rely on their husband financially.

This means women are more likley to be able to support themselves in the event of divorce.

What is a new source of conflict between husbands and wives according to feminists?

Married women must take on a dual burden, they are required to take on paid work in addition to perfroming domestic labour, this has created a new source of conflict, and had lead to a higher divorce rate than the past.

What do feminsits argue about marrriage?

They argue marrriage has remianed patriarchal, with men benefiting from their wives tripe shift of paid work, domestic work and emotion work.

How has opression in the family led to increased divorce rates?

Hochschild argues for many women home compares unfavourlby with work. At work women  feel valued, but at home mens resitence to do housework is a source of frustration and makes marriage less stable. The fact that both partners now go out to work which leaves less time and energy for the emotion work leaves less time and energy for emotion work needed to address the problems that arise. Which has contributed to a higher divorce rates.

How has opression in the family led to an increased divorce rate (part 2)?

According to sigle-rushton mothers who have a dual burden of paid work and domestic work are more likely to divorce than non-working mothers, in marriages with a traditional division of labour.

Bernard observed that many women feel a growing dissatisfaction with patriachal marriage. She sees thhe rising divorce rate and most petitions from women aas exidence of their growing acceptance of feminist ideas.

How has modernity and individualisation increased divorce rates?

Beck and Giddens argue that in modern society, traditional norms, such as the duty to remian with the same partner for life, lose their hold over individuals. Therefore, each individual becomes free  to pursue his or her own self-interest, this view has becpme known as the individualisation thesis. Relationships therefore become more fragile, as individuals become unwilling to remain with a partner if the relationship fails to deliver personal fulfilment. Instead they seek what Giddens calls a pure relationship. 

What is the pure relationship?

A relationship that exists solely to satisfy each partners needs and not out of a sense of duty, tradition or for the sake of children. This results in higher divorce rates.

What do the new right think about the high divorce rate?

See the high divorce rate as undesirable as it undermines marriage and the nuclea family, which they regard as vital to social stability. In their view, a high divorce rate creates a growing undercalss of welfare-dependent female lone parents who are a burden to the state and which leaves boys without a male role model. 

What do feminists think about the high divorce rate?

They see it as desirable as it shows that women are breaking fre from the opresssion of the patriarchal nuclear family.

What do postmodernists think about the high divorce rate?

See it as showing that individuals now  have the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs- it causes family diversity.

What do functionalists think about the high divorce rate?

Argue the high divorce rate is not a threat to marriage as a social institution, It is simply the result of peoples higher expectations of marriage today, the high level of re-marriage shows peoples commitment to marriage.

What do interactionists think about divorce?

Aims to understand what divorce means to the individual- Morgan argues we cannot generlaise the meaning of divorce, becaause every individuals interpretation is different.

What do personal life theorists think about divorce?

Accepts that divorce can cause problems such as financial difficulties and the lack of daily contact beetween parents and children. But as divorce has become normalised family life is able to adapt, we should see divorce as a transition.

What important changes have there been in the pattern of marriage?

• Fewer people are marrying- marriage rates are at their lowest since the 1920's. in 2012 there was less than half the marriages there were in 1970.
• There are more remarriages, in 2012 1/3 of all marriages were re-marriages. 
• People are marrying later- the average age of first marriage rose by 7 years between 1971 and 2012.
• Couples are less likely to marry in church- only 30% of marriages happen in church.

How have changing attitudes to marriage led to reasons in the changing patterns of remarriage?

There is less pressure to marry and more freedom for individuals to choose the type of relationship they want. There is now a widespread belief that the quality of the relationship is more important than the legal status.

How has secularisation caused changes in the patterns of marriage?

Churches are in favour of marriage, but as their influence declines people feel freer to choose not to marry.

How has a decline in stigma attached to alternatives to marriage caused changes in patterns of marriage?

Cohabitation, remaining single, and having children outside of marriage are all now widely regarded as acceptable, so pregnancy no longer leads to a shotgun wedding. 

How have changes in the position of women caused changes in the patterns of marriage?

With better educational and career prospects, many women are now less economically dependent on men. This gives them greater freedom not to marry. 

How has fear of divorce caused changes in the patterns of marriage?

With the rising divorce rate, some women may be put off marryinf because they see the increased likelihood of marriage ending in divorce.

What is cohabitation?

Cohabitation involves an unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together.

Has cohabitation increased?

Yes

• Cohabiting couples with children are a fast growing family type.
• There are 2.9 million cohabiting heterosexual couples in Britain. 1 in 8 adults are now cohabitating.
• There an estmated 69,000 same sex cohabitating couples.
• 1/5 of all cohabiting individuals are serial cohabitants.

What are the reasons for the increase in cohabitation?

• Increased cohabitation rates are a result of the decline in the stigma of sex outside of marriage.
• The young are more likely to accept cohabitation.
• Increased career opportunties for women may mean they have less need for financial security of marriage and are freer to opt for cohabitation.
• Secularisation- young people with no relgion are more likely to cohabit.

How can cohabitation be seen as a trial marriage?

Many people see cohabitation as a trial marriage and intend to marry if it goes well. 

What do other people see cohabitation as?

A permenant alternative to marriage, bejin argues cohabitation amongst young people represents a consious attempt to created a more personally negoiated and equal relationship than the patriarchal marrige.

How have same-sex relationships changed within society?

Estimates that 5-7% of the adult population have same-sex relationships. There is evidence of increased social acceptance of same-sex realtionships in recent years. Recently the age of consent has been equalised with heterosexuals. Opinion polls also show more tolerance to homosexuality. Social policy now treats all couples equally, for example, since 2002 cohabiting couples have had the same right to adopt as married couples.

What does weeks argue about same-sex couples and cohabitation?

Weeks argues increased social accpetance may explain a trend rowards same-sex cohabitation and stable relationships that resemble those found among heterosexuals. Weeks sees gays as creating families based on the idea of kinship and friendship, and he describes these as chosen families, and argues they offer the same security and stability as heterosexual families. 

What changes have there been in the patterns of one-person households?

• There has been a big rise in the number of people living alone. In 2013 3 in 10 households only contained 1 person.
• 40% of one person households are over 65. Pensioner one person households have doubled since 1961.
• By 2033, over 30% of the adult population will be single.

What are the reasons for the increase in one-person households?

• Increase in seperation and divorce has created more one-person households, especially among men under 65.
• The decline in people marrying and people marrying later also means that more people are remaining single

What does living apart together mean?

Duncan's and Phillips, found that 1 in 10 adults were living apart together- that is in a significant relationship, but not married or cohabiting. This is about half of all people officially classed as single. This may reflect the trend towards less formalised relationships and families of choice. However, duncan and phillips found that both choice and constraint play a part in whether couples live together, for example some said they could not afford to. 

What does living apart together mean?

Duncan's and Phillips, found that 1 in 10 adults were living apart together- that is in a significant relationship, but not married or cohabiting. This is about half of all people officially classed as single. This may reflect the trend towards less formalised relationships and families of choice. However, duncan and phillips found that both choice and constraint play a part in whether couples live together, for example some said they could not afford to. 

What changes have there been in childbearing?

• Nearly half of all children are now born outwside marriage- over twice as many as in 1986.
• Women are having children later- between 1971 and 2012 womens avergae age at the birth of their first child rose by 4 years to 28.1 years.
• Women are having fewer children.
• More women are remaining childless. 

What are the reasons for the changes in childbearing?

• An increase in births outside of marriage is due to a decline in stigma and an increase in cohabitation.
• The later age which women are having children, smalller families and children remianing childless, all reflect the fact that women now have more options. Many now wish to  establish a career and then start a family

What changes have there been in the patterns of lone parent families?

• Lone parent families now make up 22% of all fmailies. 1 in 4 children live in lone-parent families.
• 90% of these families are headed by lone mothers.
• until the 1990s divorced women were the biggest group of lone mothers.
• A child living with a lone parent is twice as likely to be in poverty.

What are the reasons for the changes in patterns of lone parent families?

• The number of lone parents has risen due to increase in divorce and seperation and the reduction of women getting married in the first place.
• Decline in stigma in lone-parent families.

Why are women more likely to be at the head of lone parent families?

• The widespread belief thay woen are by nature suited to an expressive role.
• The fact that divorce courts usually give custordy of children to the mother.
• Men may be less willing than women to give up work.

What does Charles Murray say about lone parent families?

He sees the growth of lone-parent families as a result from an over-generous welfare system providing benefits for unmarried women and their children. He argues this has lead to a perverse incentive, it rewards irresponsible behaviour, such as having children without being able to provide for them. The welfare state creates a dependency culture, in which people believe the state will provvide for their children. 

How can Murray's view be criticised?

Critics argue welfare benefits are  far from geenrous and lone-parent families are in fact much more likely to be in poverty. Because:

• There is lack of affordable childcare which prevents lone parents from working.
• Inadequate welfare benefits.
• Most lone parents are women, who generally earn less than men.
• Failure of farhters to pay maintenence. 

What changes have there been in the patterns of stepfamilies?

• Step families now account for 10% of families in Britain.
• In 85% of stepfamilies, at least 1 child is from the mothers previous relationshop, while in 11% there is at least 1 child from the mans previosu relationship.
• Ferri and Smith found stepfamilies are similar to first families in many respect, and stepparents had a positive effect on childrearing.
• According to Allan and Crow stepfamilies may experience problems with divided loyalty.
• McCarthy noted that there is diversity between stepfamilies.

What are the reasons for the changes in the patterns of stepfamilies?

• Stepfamiies are formed when lone parents form new partnerships.
• More children in stepfamilies are from thw womans previosu relationship, as in the case of a break up children are more likely to stay with their mother.
• Stepparents are at greater risk of poverty as there is often more children to provide for.
• Some tensions in steep families may be due t the lack  of clear social norms about how individuals should behave in these families.

What differences are there in the family patterns of black families?

• Black carribbean and blaack african people have a higher proportion of lone-paarent households. in 2012 over half of families headed by sa black person were lone-parent families.
• There is a high rate of female-headed lone-parent black families, which as seen as ecidence of family disorganisatio teaced bac ro slavery, or the unemployment of black males. As under slavery couples were sold seperatley and the children went with their mother. Unemployment with black men means they are more likely to be in poverty and unable to provide for their family.
• Mirza argue the higher rate of llone-parent families is duue to the value balck women place on independence.

What are the differences in family patterns of Asian families?

• Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian households tend to be larger than those of other ethnic groups. Such households contain three generations, but mosst are nuclear rather than extended. Larger households are due to the younger age of British Asians, so ahigher proportion are in the childbeaing age group.
• Larger Asian households also reflect the value put on the extended family, the extended family provides a level of support. This was due to the early stages of migration. Now most Asian families are nuclear and family lives nearby for frequent visits.

Why have the patterns of the extended family changed?

• Charles study of Swansea found, the classic three generaton family all living together is noe all but extinct. Apart from among Bangladeshi communities.
• However, whilst the extended family has not disappeared, Willmott argues it continues to exist as a dipersed extended family, where reatives are geogrpahically seperated but maintain frequent contact though visits and phone calls. 
• Chamberlains study of Caribbean families in Britain, found that despite being geogrpahically dispersed, they continue to provide support. She describes them as multiple nuclear families with frequent contact.

What is the beanpole family?

A parrticular type of extended family Brannen describes as long and thin.

• It is extended vertically- through three generaitions- granparents, parents and children.
• Not extended horizontally- does not involve cousins, aunts and uncles.

What deomgraphic changes are beanole families a result of?

• Increased life expectancy- means more surviving grandparents and great-grandparents.
• Smaller family sizes means people have fewer siblings and therefore have fewer horizontal ties.

What obligation to people feel to relatives?

Despite an increase in the beanpole family, many people still feel and obligation to support their extended kin. Finch and Mason found over 90%  of people hve given or recievd financial support, and about half had cared for a sick relative. However, women and expected to do more than men. Cheal notes that if personal care for an elderly woman is needed. a daughter or daughter-in-lawis preffered. Sons arre rarely chosen as caregivers for elderly women. On the other hand, daughters are rarely chosen as appropraite people to provide money. However, the amount of responability also depends on past relationships and the obligations women feel towards their elderly relatives.