COUPLES

This refers to the roles that men and women play in relation to housework, childcare and paid work.

PARSONS: Instrumental and Expressive roles

In the traditional nuclear family, the roles of husbands and wives are segragated - separate and distinct from one another. In TALCOTT PARSONS' (1955) functionalist model of the family, there is a clear division of labour between the spouses: 

• The husband has an instrumental role, geared towards achieving success at work so that he could provide for the family financially. He is the breadwinner.

• The wife has an expressive role, geared towards primary socialisation of the children and meeting the family's emotional needs. She is the homemaker, a full-time housewife rather than a wage earner.

PARSONS: Instrumental and Expressive roles (CONTINUED)

PARSONS argues that this division of labour is based on biological differences, with women 'naturally' suited to the nurturing role and men to that of provider.

He claims that this division of labour is beneficial to both men and women, to their children and to wider society.

Some conservative thinkers and politicians, known as the New Right, also hold this view.

Criticism of PARSONS:

• MICHAEL YOUNG and PETER WILLMOTT (1962) argue that men are now taking a greater share of domestic tasks and more wives are becoming wage earners.

• Feminist sociologists reject PARSONS' view that the division of labour is natural. In addition, they argue that it only benefits men.

JOINT AND SEGREGATED CONJUGAL ROLES

ELIZABETH BOTT (1957) distinguishes between two types of conjugal roles within the marriage

• Segregated conjugal roles, where the couple have seperate roles: a male breadwinner and a female homemaker/carer, as in PARSONS' instrumental and expressive roles. Their leisure activities also tend to be separate.

• Joint conjugal roles, where the couple share tasks such as housework and childcare and spend their leisure time together.

YOUNG AND WILLMOTT identified a pattern of segregated conjugal roles in their study of traditional working-class extended families in Bethnal Green, east London, in the 1950s.

Men were the breadwinners. They played little part in home life and spent their leisure time with workmates in pubs and working men's clubs.

Women were full-time housewives with sole responsibility for housework and childcare, helped by their female relatives. The limited leisure women had was also with female kin.

THE SYMMETRICAL FAMILY

YOUNG AND WILLMOTT (1973) take a 'march of progress' view of the history of the family. They see family life as gradually improving for all its members, becoming more equal and democratic.

They argue that there has been a long-term trend away from segregated conjugal roles and towards joint conjugal roles and the 'symmetrical family', where the roles of husbands and wives are not identical however more similar.

• Women now go out to work, although this may be part-time rather than full time

• Men now help with housework and childcare

• Couples now spend their leisure time together instead of seperately with workmates or female relatives

YOUNG AND WILLMOTT see the rise of the symmetrical nuclear family as the result of major social changes that have taken place during the past century: Changes in women's position, Geographical mobility, New technology, Higher standards of living.

A FEMINIST VIEW OF HOUSEWORK

Feminist sociologists reject this 'march of progress' view. 

They argue that little has changed: men and women remain unequal within the family and women still do the most of the housework. They see this inequality as stemming from the fact that the family and society are male-dominated or patriarchal.

YOUNG AND WIlLMOTT found that most of the husbands interviewed 'helped' their wives at least once a week, e.g. taking the children for a walk a walk or making breakfast on one occasion. 

ANN OAKLEY (1974) criticises YOUNG AND WILLMOTT'S view that the family is now symmetrical. The claims are 'exaggerated'.

For OAKLEY, this is hardly convincing evidence of symmetry. She found that only 15% of husbands had a high level of participation in housework, and only 25% had a high level of participation in childcare.

THE MARCH OF PROGRESS VIEW

Some sociologists take an optimistic view.

In the march of progress view, men are becoming more involved in housework and childcare just as women are becoming more involved in paid work outside the home.

JONATHAN GERSHUNY (1994) argues that women working full-time is leading to a more equal division of labour in the home. Using time studies, he found that these women did less domestic work than other women.

ORIEL SULLIVAN'S (2000) analysis of nationally representative data collected in 1975, 1987 and 1997 and found a trend towards women doing a smaller share of the domestic work and men doing more.

Her analysis also showed an increase in the number of couples with an equal division of labour and that men were particpating more in traditional 'women's tasks. 

EXPLAINING THE GENDER DIVISION OF LABOUR

ROSEMARY CROMPTOM and CLAIRE LYONETTE (2008) identify two different explanations for the unequal division of labour.

THE CULTURAL OR IDEOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF INEQUALITY - The division of labour is determined by patriarchal norms and values that shape the gender roles in our culture. Women perform more domestic labour simply because that is what society expects them to do and has socialised them to do.

Evidence - GERSHUNY (1994) found that couples whose parents had a more equal relationship are more likely to share housework equally themselves, suggesting that parental role models is important

THE MATERIAL OR ECONOMIC EXPLANATION OF INEQUALITY - The fact that women generally earn less than men means it is economically rational for women to do more of the housework and childcare while men spend more of their time earning money.

Evidence - KAN found that for every £10,000 a year more a woman earns, she does two hours less housework per week.

MICHELLE BARETT and MARY MCLNTOSH (1991) note that:

• Men gain far more from women's domestic work than they give back in financial support.

• The financial support that husbands give to their wives is often unpredictable and comes with 'strings' attached.

• Men usually make the decisions about spending on important items.

MONEY MANAGEMENT

Feminists sociologists JAN PAHL and CAROLYN VOGLER (1993) identify 2 main types of control over family income. 

1. THE ALLOWANCE SYSTEM, where men give their wives an allowance out of which they have to budget to meet the family's needs, with the man retaining any surplus income for himself

2. POOLING, where both partners have access to income and joint responsibility for expenditure; for example, a joint bank account

DECISION-MAKING

STEPHEN EDGELL'S (1980) study of professional couples found that:

• VERY IMPORTANT DECISIONS, such as those involving finance, a change of job or moving house, were either taken by the husband alone or taken jointly but with the husband having the final say

• IMPORTANT DECISIONS, such as those about children's education or where to go on holiday, were usually taken jointly, and seldom by the wife alone

• LESS IMPORTANT DECISIONS, such as the choice of home decor, children's clothes or food purchases, were usually made by the wife

The Home Office (2013) defines domestic violence and abuse as:

'Any incident or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive or threatening behaviour, violence or abuse between those aged 16 or over who are or have been intimate partners or family members regardless of gender or sexuality'

This mat include psychological, physical, sexual, financial and emotional violence or abuse.

A common view of domestic violence is that it is the behaviour of a few disturbed or 'sick' individuals, and that it's causes are psychological rather than social. However, sociologists have challenged this view:

• Domestic violence is far too widespread to be the work of 'disturbed' individuals

• • The Women's Aid Federeation (2014) - domestic violence accounts for between a sixth and a quarter of all recorded violent crime
• Domestic violence does not occur randomly but follows particular social patterns which have social causes.

EXPLANATIONS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

There are 2 types of explanations of domestic violence:

• The radical feminist explanation This emphasises the role of patriarchal ideas, cultural values and institutions.

For example, evidence from the Office for National Statistics (2014) suggests that women from some social groups face a greater risk of domestic violence, these include:

• Young women

• Those on low incomes or in financial difficulties

• those living in shared and rented accommodation

• Those with high levels of alcohol consumption or using illegal drugs

• Those with a long term illness or disability

• The materialist explanation This emphasises economic factors such as lack of resources