English Language AS

Mills, Cameron & Shultz - 'Semantic Derrogation'

- female orientated words have become prejorated and have undergone a negative semantic shift, whereas the male terms have predominantly remained more positive.

Peter Trudgill & Jenny Cheshire - 'non standard pronounciation in men

- research into speech styles showed males were more likely to use non-standard pronounciation as part of a 'covert-prestige'

Lakoff - 'lacking authority'

- the use of female specialised vocabulary, precise colour terms and weak expletive terms, empty adjectives, tag questions, use of hedges and intensifiers.  

 (Holmes suggested that tag question are used to be polite)

Deficit Approach

Lakoff - 'lacking authority'

- the use of female specialised vocabulary, precise colour terms and weak expletive terms, empty adjectives, tag questions, use of hedges and intensifiers.  

 (Holmes suggested that tag question are used to be polite)

Dominance Approach

Zimmermen & West - 'Male Interruptions'

- found that in speech men tend to be responsible for the majority of interruptions and saw this as a sign that women therefore have restricted linguistic freedom.

Difference Approach

Coates - 'Cooperative Language'

Pilkington - 'Collaborative Language'

Kuiper - 'men don't save face, women care about politeness'