Dynamic Development-Revision

Development=how wealth and quality of life of people living on our planet varies from place to place

Development=subjective term-can be interpreted in no. of ways-geographical terms=country is improving-no country=fully developed & not developed at all-countries move forward and backwards in development for various reasons e.g war, independence...

Classification of countries according to development:

AC's : Advanced countries (rich countries of the world)

• are more in the Northern Hemisphere
• Distribution concentrated in Western Europe, North America and Australia - only 3 in Asia

EDC's : Emerging and developing countries (in transition from LIDC-->AC)

• includes BRICs - Brazil, Russia, India and China (2001) - rapid growth in economy - measured by GDP (value of goods country produces)
• MINTs - Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey
• these countries predicted to be among largest economies in the world by 2050

LIDC's : Low income developing countries -

• poor, narrow range of jobs and services (mostly primary and a few secoundary jobs)
• Distribution concentrated in Africa (a few in Asia)

Why are some countries richer than others?

How can we measure development?

Economic measure of development:

GNI : Gross National Income - sum of all money earned in a country - USA=largest GNI - Malawi in Africa-lowest GNI

GNI per capita : divides GNI by no. of people in country(average wealth per person)-doesn't take into account the different living cost of different countries e.g. bottle of milk could be 5 euros in Spain and 10 euros in Italy (not real)

GNI per capita at PPP(Purchasing Pwer Parity) : takes living cost into account - using this measure Qatar has highest, USA=8th & Zimbabwe=lowest

Criticisms of using GNI

• only average measure of wealth - only few 'mega rich' people in population - most are of lower incomes but 'average' makes country more developed than reality
• not all wealth is included -e.g. substitance farmers->farmers that grows food to feed their family only
• development encompasses social, environmental & economical elements e.g. Literacy rate, life expectancy, nutrition, water supply...e.t.c

Human Development Index : Includes 3 measures

• GDP = wealth
• Life expectancy (average age a baby being born can expect to live to)
• Adult Literacy Rate (% of 16 year olds that can read and write)

Scores range from 0(lowest) to 1(highest)-Norway=highest-score=0.944 &Niger=lowest-score=0.348---is seen as better 'overall' view of country development-includes social&economic measurements-criticised for not including political development

Uneven development exists both between and within countries. Globally, most ACs=Europe, N.America & Oceania(Australia&New Zealand)-most EDCs=Asia, S.America & most LIDCs=Africa

In UK-North=higher unemployment, lower income & shorter life expectancy than South. 

Wealthy countries have more money to spend on health & education=better adult literacy & life expectancy-wealth=not guaratee of development

Qatar=richest country in world-rich from selling oil&gas but has relatively low life expectancy-lead to huge construction in recent years(football stadiums-2022 world cup)-

Qatar=not large workforce---->migrant workers from Nepal, India & Bangladesh-By 2022 a million migrant workers will have entered. Qatar-many of migrant workers forced to live in poor, cramped conditions-pay=low

Some claim passports been confiscated and can't go home-large no. died from heart failure from working outdoors in extreme temperatures

(H)HUMAN & (P)PHYSICAL factors that influence global uneven development:

• Population(H)-larger population, easier to develop-larger workforce-isn't good for LIDCs-more mouths to feed
• Climate(P)-warm, moist climate-good for growing crops&for people to live comfortably
• Land(P)-flat, fertile land(ash=fertile-near volcanoes&forest fires), suitable for growing crops and building cities
• Natural Resources(P)-abundance of minerals(oil/coal)can be used for trade or manufacturing

However-none of these factors explain why some countries are more developed than others-Bangladesh-large population-still LIDC

Country's history=important factor in determing how developed they are today.....

Colonialism-European countries colonised much of Asia, Africa & S.America-colonies supplied raw materials for Europe

In Caribbean, land was taken from people & turned into large plantations growing crops for Europe-merchants became rich-able to invest in new industries in Europe. African slaves transported to Caribbean-depriving Africa of workforce-colonialism helped Europe develop-slowed down development in other countries

Patterns of trade established during colonial time continue today-->Jamaica's main export=sugar and bauxite-Nigeria's include cocoa and rubber(raw materials) & UK's main exports are 'products' and 'services' = motor vehicles and financial services

• rising sea levels
• more intense hurricanes
• warmer temps. & longer heatwaves
• more unpredictable rainfall & drought

Is real injustice to fact that LIDCs emit such small quantities of greenhouse gases-relatively little impact on world's climate-but face greatest consequences:

• Melting glaciers-Himalayas-less fresh water,farming.etc.more conflict over water
• Mosquitos move into higher areas=greater disease
• Stronger hurricanes(warm water fuels them)=greater flooding
• Reduced rainfall=fewer crops= increased hunger
• Sea levels rise=low lying areas under water e.g.Bangladesh, Maldives=migration=overpopulation
• Increased poverty

Factors that make it hard for countries to break out of poverty:

TRADE..way to obtain things a country needs and earn money-->development gap exists between ACs and LIDCs-?

• increased trade tends to be between ACs
• ACs produce manufactured goods(worth a lot)whereas LIDCs rely on natural commodities(raw materials)not worth as much
• price of natural commodities fluctates with supply&demand-price of goods has increased
• much trade controlled by TNCs(trans-national companies)mainly based in ACs-much of manufacturing for TNCs takes place in LIDCs-most profit=HQ AC

DEBT...any country that borrows money=debt-

ACs able to make repayments&still have enough money to spend/invest e.g.USA debt=$360bn.

LIDCs spend all money on debt repayment=nothing left to invest in healthcare/education-holds development back

Since 2000, 30 of world's countries=benfit from 'debt relief'-enables to have more money to spend on essential services

POLITICAL UNREST...widespread political dissatisfaction with government-

triggered by :

• social inequality=rich vs poor
• corruption=government using public money for personal gain
• high taxes
• lack of government spending money on key areas-healthcare, education etc.
• rising prices od essential items e.g food
• conflict over ownership of water, land...

Political unrest can develop into civil war-different groups fighting each other-civil war can last for decades-holds back development as: displaces people, disrupts services&production of food&goods.

Civil war between N & S. Sudan=longest(Africa's)-after independence from Britain-N controlled S-forced Islam-peace reached 2005-oil split-2011 S.Sudan independence-2013 new civil war in S.Sudan between government&rebels-thousands killed-millions displaced-production of oil(main export)almost stopped-rival ethnic groups fight for land rights to graze cattle

Are LIDCs likely to stay poor?-Tajikistan=LIDC

How has Tajikistan developed so far?

• is in Asia-part of former Soviet Union-gained independence in 1991
• Life expectancy=65 years
• HDI 0.624=129th out of 188 countries
• GNI per capita $2,424
• has youthful population(high % under 16)-34% under 14

Positives:

• has lots of rivers-total > 28500km-enables to generate a lot of HEP(hydro electric power)
• borders 4 other countries (uzbekhistan, afghanistan, china & pakistan)=land locked-could be potential trading partners
• youthful population-lot of potential of workers-could boost economic growth in future

 Model=all countries are at different stages of development-one of five stages. Any country in lower stage=less developed-compared to country in higher stage--5 stages....

• 1. Undeveloped societies="traditional societies"-dominated by subsistence farming-little technology
• 2."Pre conditions for take-off":farming improves-is 'surplus'=enables reinvestment
• 3."Take off stage"=industrialisation occurs-majority jobs=factories&infrastructure improves
• 4."Drive to maturity"=manufactured goods export-to developed countries
• 5."Age of high mass consumption"=development achieved-citizens live=urban areas&comfortable lifestyle-life expectancy-access to education&healthcare

Can Rostow's model determine a country's path of economic development? CRITICISMS:

• model is old(1960) & oversimplified
• many countries follow zig zag path-not straight line like model
• money needed for country to move beyond stage 1-happens through international aid-debt repayments restrict further advancements-not taken into account in model
• UAE developed base on oil reserves-skipped stages 2&3-went straight from 1 to 5 in 10/15 yrs-model can't be applied
• countries can fall back-e.g Syria-before conflict was middle income country-fallen back to being LIDC

Tajikistan falls into stage 2 of Rostow model-still relies on raw material exports & is yet to industrialise

To what extent has Tajikistan achieved the Millennium development goals?

In 2000 189 world leader agreed&signed Millennium declaration-contained 8 Millennium development goals-should've cut world poverty in half by 2015

Tajikistan's made excellent progress towards most of goals, including:

• proportion of population below $1 a day fell from 49.4 in 1999 to 6.6 in 2009
• under 5 mortality rate in 1999 98.0 to 2010 63.3
• proportion of 1 yr olds immunized against measles in 1999 79.0 by 2010 98.0
• HIV 15-64 in 1999 0.1 by 2010 0.3
• mobile phone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants in 1999 0 by 2012 92.2
• have made fair progress towards achieving universal primary schooling&halting&reversing spread of TB

Have not met targets to:

• achieve productive&decent employment & halving proportion without improved drinking-population using safe drinking water source in 1999 60 in 2012 66 

Difficult geographical conditions make country vulnerable to natural disasters e.g mudslides & floods repeated up to 25 times per decade-in very wet years damage from floods&mudslides in Tajikistan=hundreds of millions of dollars-only damage caused by mudslides&floods in 2010 amounted to more than $600 million=undermines country's efforts to achieve international development goals incl.MDG

Problems meeting access to safe water---->only 5% of rural Tajiks have access to safe water-many rely on rivers&open ditches-often fouled by animals, agricultural runoff&human sewage-

Waterborne bacteria-causes diarrhoea&tyhpoid=widespread in Tajikistan-esp.rural areas-situation worsening-infrastructure built by Soviets decaying

Problems achieving productive&decent employment---->over reliance on exportation of perishable goods to make money-doesn't generate much income-buyers have power to set prices-

President Emomali Rahmon ruled since independence&plays large role in economy-main obstacle citied by local&foreign entrepeneurs=inadequate infrastructure-insufficient&unreliable energy supply; weak rule of law,esp.reagarding property rights-overly burdensome tax policy&adminstration

17 Sustainable Development Goals-set in 2015-by UN-more detailed&ambitious-been some criticism that there's too many goals to work towards

(P)Political-(S)Social-(E)Environmental

• landlocked country with no coastline-harder to trade-have to rely on neighbouring countries to allow good in&out
• (E)is mountainous(93%)-makes building difficult-puts of TNCs
• (E)much of fresh water comes from glacier melt in rivers-warming climate=less glacier melt=less fresh water
• (S)has youthful population-providing education=difficult&immunising against childhood disease=too expensive
• relies on exporting raw materials-doesn't generate great income-sold quickly-no negotiation
• (P)not seen as democratic-international govt doesn't trust honesty of Tajik president
• (P)suffered long period of Political Unrest post independence from Soviet Union-5yr civil war-issues with Krygystan-drug trafficking&jihadis in Afghanistan-young Tajiks want to join Islamic State
• (P)young Tajiks want free speech-fight to get it-could lead to conflict
• (S)young men-go to Russia-find employment to give Remittances-russian currency dropped
• many languages spoken-potential for conflict
• (E)Tajikistan suffers from-droughts,floods&earthquakes on regular basis

Overview of Tajikistan's economic development: Between 2000-2007 Tajikistan's economy grew well - 9% a year -

Between 2014-2015 Tajikistan saw fall in economic growth fell from 6.7% to 4.3%-measures have been introduced and growth is predicted to grow in.

Measures incl.supporting jobs in private sector, building job relevant skills & facilitating access to jobs for vulnerable people and places

• In 2014, Tajikistan exported $697M & imported $4.8B, resulting in negative trade balance of $4,1B
• rely on export of single commodity-aluminium - are postives and negatives:

Positives:

• may attract foreign direct investment from TNCs-may help improve infrastructure-rural areas-where is needed greatest
• Aluminium TNCs may invest transport links to other countries-increase access for local Tajiks
• having commodity=links established with trading partners-could lead to other links in future

Negatives:

• Aluminium is finite resource-runs out?income?
• price of aluminium fluctuates-Tajiks not sure about income they'll get from selling it
• Tajikistan not only country that imports aluminium-other countries may do better deal-means Tajikistan doesn't have enough countries to export to

TNC=company that has branches in at least 2 countries-

HQ in AC=source country-

factories in EDCs(mostly)or LIDCs=host countries- because has cheap labour & land

Benefits

• TNCs pay taxes to Host country government-money can be invested in infrastructure e.g road, rail links or services like hospitals or schools
• TNCs provide jobs/income for workers employ in Host countries
• TNCs can produce cheaper goods-benefiting consumers in Source country

Problems

• TNCs put own profit first-not host country-often high skilled-high paid jobs done by source country-most money leaves LIDC & goes to source country
• wages for people in Host country-usually low-people exploited=low wages long hours-why TNC locates there
• when cheaper host country arrives-TNC leave previous host country, transfer factories-make products even cheaper&increase company profits-leades to unemployment&poverty
• Some TNCs-particularly petroleum based ones(BP)-damage host country's environment
• large TNCs=best accountants-result=tax evasion(example=Google, Starbucks and other countries in UK in past)
• large TNCs can put smaller, local, similar countries out of business as can't compete=host country can actually lose money/income

...International aid in helping countries like Tajikistan develop?

(ODA)Official Development Assistance-given by governments&paid for by taxes

Bi-lateral aid-given by one country to another

Multi-lateral aid-given by more than one country through IMF(International Monetary Fund)

Tied aid-aid given with conditions that receiving country must agree to

Short term emergency relief-to cope with effects of disasters/conflicts

Long term development assistance-helps to improve lives & develop country

Voluntary aid-is given by individuals/companies & distributed by charities and non-government organizations (NGOs)

...International aid in helping countries like Tajikistan develop?

Advantages of aid

• aid is attempt to rebalance global inequality
• repayment for benefits ACs got from colonialism
• everyone should have right to essentials of life-aid can help people get these

Disadvantages of aid

• discourages people from trying to look after themselves-will start to rely on aid
• Aid givers(donors)may decide what aid to give-may give what is not needed
• may be given to corrupt government-use for personal gain not country's

• UK & EU have long sent aid to Tajikistan-invested in helping rural women's lives-given as Tajikistan is important country in the fight against drug trafficking&terrorism as it borders afghanistan
• UN invested money in trying to reduce HIV&TB prevalence rates-funded vaccine program against TB&funding education programmes for HIV awareness education
• Russia sent over billion in military weapons to Tajikistan to try help fight against Islamic State
• with support from UNICEF-mass immunization campaign conducted agianst diphtheria, polio & measles-which has brought no. of diphtheria, polio and measles cases down and eradicated polio all together

Is debt relief positive or negative way of helping LIDCs like Tajikistan develop?

What is international debt?-Money a nation owes to other nations/international organisations like the IMF-often amounts that they have to pay back are greater than their income from exports and aid

How does this impact the ability of a country to develop?-country has to used all income to pay off debt and doesn't have money to invest in infrastructure or services for citizens-education, healthcare&roads remain poor quality so development is harder

If a country can get debt relief that means large sums of money don't need to be paid back and can use money to invest in improving the country instead

Comparing advantages and disadvantages for Tajikistan..most appropriate?

TOP DOWN strategies=expensive & country has to borrow money from World Bank or developed countries-decisions related to any top-down scheme will be made by govt-locals that will be affected by scheme have little say & influence in process

BOTTOM UP strategies=projects planned & controlled by locals to help communities-not expensive because use smaller, more appropriate technology-locals pay for-because project is on smaller scale-environmental damage is often much less

• Rogun Dam is 100km north-east of Dushanbe(capital city) along river Vakhsh
• Rogun Dam will be the tallest in the world at 300m high
• it will cost $800 million 
• construction began in 1976 but is nowhere near finished
• President says it's needed because power shortages have crippled Tajikistan's development
• to help fund it Tajikistan government encouraging people to buy shares(most don't have money to)
• Tajik will benefit from more reliable energy supply

Positives for Tajikistan

• Rogun Dam would make Tajikistan 'energy independent' instead of reliant on Kazakhistan/Uzbekhistan for gas during winter
• The dam would be source of pride for Tajikistan
• Flooding will be reduced in Tajikistan & dam will store water so it doesn't flow into Uzbekhistan
• dam could generate surplus of water during summer which could export for money

Negatives for Tajikistan

• 42,000 people-displaced from homes&land because of project-families of resettled-children have to walk 2hrs to school
• Tajik government seen as very corrupt&hydroelectric electric companies exploit locals for gains
• due to location in winter water freezes & spin rates in turbines-reduced=less HEP potential
• project needed loan of $45m-if not completed will have to stay repay money-LIDC=difficult
• Tajik govt will invest $15m into Rogun Dam-money could've been invested elsewhere(education&healthcare)
• Tension already exists between Tajikistan& Uzbekhistan-Rogun Dam will increase tension-Rogun Dam increase water shortages-Uzbekhistan need water for cotton production=less income

BOTTOM UP STRATEGIES IN TAJIKISTAN: GROW PROJECT

Solar Greenhouse- In Gonchi district(northern Tajikistan)group of women tend to crops in solar greenhouse-in spite of cold weather-crops doing good-produce=tomatoes & cucumbers etc..-provides vital source of food for women's family-surplus is sold-over 6 month $3600 income

Solar drying apricots- In north of Tajikistan families producing dried apricots-increase profit seven times by installing solar drier(provided by Christian Aid)-rising temp. & erratic weather=damages quality of produce-with solar equipment quality=safeguarded & much improved

ADVANTAGES: helps people help themselves...

'Give a man a fish and he'll eat for a day. Teach a man how to fsh and he'll feed himself for the rest of his life.'- Oxfam

• Important that help given is affordable and no too hi-tech that as soon as it breaks they can't fix it
• Having a better income means locals can send children to school-better education-better job 
• Helps people break out of poverty cycle

Disadvantages of BOTTOM UP strategies

• May not be planned systematically-may happen in some places and not others
• May rely on aid donations from other countries/NGOs - if aid withdrawn=scheme may have to close