Developmental psychology

"A deep steated emotional tie that one individual forms with another, binding them together in space and enduring them over time" - Ainwsorth, 1979.

Psychologyical definition, backed up by body of research for over 35 years

Attachment figures (caregivers) - mothers, fathers, grandparents.

Attachment is studied in infants and how an attachment is formed with their primary caregivers.

An important fundamental part of infancy.

For security (Ainsworth, Bowlby) - use the attachment as a safe base for which to explore the world.

To protect children from danger (Bowlby)

"Mother love in infancy is important for mental halth as are vitamines and proteins for physical health." (Bowlby, 1952)

Early research typically focused on the mother and they tended to be the primary caregiver.

Maccoby, 1980:

1) Proximity to caregivers

2) Distress in separation - separation anxiety, get upset when they leave their attachment figure. Before this stage, infant will not get upset.

3) Happy on reunion

4) Orient actions to caregivers - involves watching the caregiver to make sure they are still there, and listen out for them. 

Attachment evident at 7-9 months old; fear of strangers

Infants are able to discriminate between their caregivers and strangers.

Parents plays central role in child's development and determining the nature of the attachment between a parent and a child. 

Cognittive sensori-motor skills necessary for attachment (e.g. object permanence) - if they don't understand that when the parent leaves they will return, they cannot form an attachment.

Learning in social interactions important - learn from the behaviours of others.

Need to understand cause and effect

Biological basis - attachment had a survival instinct.

Studied in evolutionary context - attachment was formed to protect infants from predators and to promote survival 

'Evolutionary-ethological' approach - the study of animal behaviour of attachment.

Need for proximity seen across species

Children actively involved in attachment relationships

Secure base - use the caregiver as a secure base to explore the world.

Across lifespan.

4/5 phases of attachment (Bowlby, 1969)

1) No discrimination in orientation/signals - infants will act in exactly the same way to a stranger and a parent.

2) Preferential people - smile at caregivers and are better comforted by caregivers (5-7 months)

3) Preferential proximity to discriminated person by signals/locomotion - 7-9 months. Where attachment properly starts. Signals such as crying.

4) Goal-corrected partnership - caregivers and childs needs, from 2/3 years of age. Where the caregiver stops just being a resource and the child starts to accommodate for the caregivers needs too.

5) Lessoning attachmnet (proximity) - abstract, trust, affection etc, from school age onwards.

Previously believed to be only with the mother.

But, evidence of multiple attachments.

Qualities of caregiver important - e.g. people who are responsive, interactive, playful.

Study of separation protest (Schaffer & Emerson, 1964) - they asked mothers which caregivers and how many infants showed separation anxiety towards someone other than their mother.

- 7-9 months: 29% +1 attachment figure

- 18 months: 87% +1 attachment figure

- 33% had strongest attachment to someone other than their mother e.g. father, sibling.

Infants form multiple attachments however, the nature of the attachment may be different for each attachment and whether or not the attachment is secure or insecure.

Fox, 1977

- Israeli Kibbutzim

- Children in nursery with nurser

- 1-2 year old children strongly ttached to both mother and nursery caregiver

     - Both able to provide infants with safe base and reassurance

Agricultural societies - mothers in field and infant with family (Grandparents, older siblings)

- Other people have care-giving roles, yet children still form attachments

Separation anxiety is seen across different cultures, meaning attachment is a universal concept.

Measure for assessing how "well" attached infant is to mother/caregiver.

12-24 month old infants

Premise: caregiver as 'safe base', comforter

7/8 short episodes of study

A well attached child shoud:

a) explore when caregiver present

b) Be stressed by caregivers absence

c) Be comforted by caregivers return

Focus on whether caregiver can comfort child

Researchers observe through a one-way mirror.

1) Mother and infant in a room, explores for 3 minutes.

2) Stranger enters, sits for 1 minute, talks to the mother for 1 minute, plays with the infant for 1 minute.

3) Mother leaves, stranger plays with infant then withdraws for up to 3 minutes.

4) Mother returns, stranger leaves discreetly, mother settled infant and sits for 3 minutes.

5) Mother leaves, infant alone for up to 3 minutes

6) Strangers enters, attempts the settle infant then withdraws if can, up to 3 minutes

7) Mother returns, stranger leves discreetly, other settled infants and sits down (session ends, 20 mins)

Attachment classified after review of ** videotapes

Infant rated on:

- Behaviour directed at caregiver

- Seeking contact, maintaining contact, distance interactions, avoidance and resistance to contact.

- Response to stranger.

Evident from 12 months: infant care attachment

1) Type A: Avoidant - child avoids the caregiver (insecure) - may also be indifferent to the caregiver. For example, they do not cry when the mother leaves the room. Stranger being as effective as the mother when comforting the child. Child looks awat when the mother comes back into the room.

2) Type B: secure - actively seek contact with the caregiver. Easily comforted by  parent and not easily by the stranger . Distressed when mother leaves and happy when they return.

3) Type C: ambivalent - some contact/some resistance (insecure) - distressed when they leave but upset from they return whilst also trying to seek proximity and contact with the mother.

Expect a securely attached child to explore and be easily settled when the mother returns.

Distressed when the parent leaves and not be easily comforted by the stranger.

Pleased when the mother returns and not be upset go over and seek contact.

Original study found that:

- 65% children had secure attachment (B)

- 21% were avoidant (A)

- 14% were ambivalent/resistance (C)

Critcisms for tendency to compare 'B' with 'A&C' or to suggest type B is best.

- Dyadic relationship between M-1, can be different with alternative attachment figures - e.g. father-child, grandparent-child.

Doesn't take into account the child's temperament.

America: 70% type B; 20% tpye A; 10% type C

Germany:40-50% type A

Japan: 35% type C

Questions about 'insecure' attachments --> less satisfactory or diffrrent forms of attachment?

Cultural differences:

- Japanese infants excessively distressed when left alone (12 months)

- Different cultural values/emphasis in USA/Japan

Re-define meaning of types A, B, C, D (Cole, 1998)

Previously discounted/unclassified instancies from videos reanalysed (Main & Soloman, 1986, 1990)

Over 200 videos were classified in which the child did not fit into either A, B or C categories.

- Type D: insecure disorganised - disorientated/ contradictory behaviours.

More common in certain groups of infants

- e.g. abused/maltreated infants; depressed mothers; parental addictions.

One suggestion:

- Fear of caregivers or witnessing caregivers showing fearful or frightened behaviours.

- Parents unresolved mental state (e.g. abuse by parent, sudden death of child)

High levels of maternal expressed emotion

Stillbirth study (Hughes, et al, 2001)

Problems later in childhood.

1) Secure attachment (B)

2) Avoidant (A) - insecure

3) Ambivalent (C) - insecure

4) Disorganised (D) - insecure

Genetics/predisposition: modest influence

- Twin studied: 70% concordance Mz; 64% Dz

- Foster parents vs biological mother - infants pairs

Other environmental influences:

- Maternal sensitivity hypothesis

- Maternal Mind Mindedness (Meins et all, 2001)

      - Maternal sensitivity predicted attachment security.

- Internal working models

Cultural and individual differences

Bowlby: atttachment as lifespain construct

But: attachment often not assessed beyong infancy

 - New work assesses attachment in pre-school, ages 5-7 and adult populations