demography

The UK’s population grew from 37m. in 1901 to 65m. today and should reach 71m. by 2031

• The birth rate is the number of live births per 1,000 of the population per year.  
• The total fertility rate is the average number of children a woman will have during her fertile years (aged 15-44). 

Two important trends are

• More women are remaining childless nowadays.
• Women are having children later: the average age is now over 30

Reasons for the fall in birth rate

• Changes in the position of women
• Fall in infant mortality rate (IMR)
• Children as an economic liability
• Child-centredness

Reasons for the fall in birth rate

• Changes in the position of women
• Fall in infant mortality rate (IMR)
• Children as an economic liability
• Child-centredness

1. changes in the position of women;

• Increased educational opportunities  
• More women working
• Changes in attitudes to family life and women’s role
• Easier access to divorce
• Access to abortion and contraception.

2. fall in IMR;

(The IMR is the number of infants who die before their first birthday, per 1,000 babies born alive, per year)

• A fall in the IMR may cause a fall in the birth rate: if infants survive, parents will have fewer of them
• Improved housing, sanitation, nutrition, including that of mothers, knowledge of hygiene and child health, and health services for mothers and children will cause a fall in IMR

3. children as an economic liability;

• Laws banning child labour and introducing compulsory schooling mean they remain economically dependent for longer. 
• Changing norms about children’s right to a high standard of living raises their cost.

As a result, parents may be unable to afford to have a large family.

4. child-centeredness

Childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period and this has led to a shift from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’: parents now have fewer children and lavish more attention and resources on these few. 

Effects of a falling birth rate 

• Lower birth rates and fertility rates have several effects on the family and society – e.g. having fewer children means women are freer to go out to work, creating the dual earner couple.
• The dependency ratio is the relationship between the size of the working population and the size of the non-working (dependent) population.  The working population’s earnings and taxes support the dependent population. 
• Public services Fewer schools and child health services may be needed, and less needs to be spent on maternity and paternity leave. 

4. child-centeredness

Childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period and this has led to a shift from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’: parents now have fewer children and lavish more attention and resources on these few. 

Effects of a falling birth rate 

• Lower birth rates and fertility rates have several effects on the family and society – e.g. having fewer children means women are freer to go out to work, creating the dual earner couple.
• The dependency ratio is the relationship between the size of the working population and the size of the non-working (dependent) population.  The working population’s earnings and taxes support the dependent population. 
• Public services Fewer schools and child health services may be needed, and less needs to be spent on maternity and paternity leave. 

The death rate is the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year

• It has halved from 19 in 1900, down to 8.9 by 2012

reasons for the fall in death rate;

• Improved nutrition (McKeown 1972) - better diet accounted for half the reduction in the death rate, by increasing people’s resistance to infection.
• Medical improvements - from the 1950s, the death rate fell due partly to medical factors such as vaccination, antibiotics, blood transfusion, better maternity services and the creation of the NHS (1949).
• Public health improvements - more effective government with the power to pass and enforce laws led to improved public health 

Life expectancy refers to how long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live. 

Life expectancy has greatly increased since 1900: For babies born in 1900 it was 50 years for males, 57 for females.  For babies born in 2013 it was 90.7 years for males, 94 for females.

As the IMR fell, life expectancy rose. 

• Increasing life expectancy – people are living longer. 
• Low infant mortality – babies no longer die in large numbers. 
• Declining fertility – fewer young people are being born.

effects of an ageing population;

• Public services - older people consume more health and social care services. 
• More one-person pensioner households 
• The rising dependency ratio - the non-working need to be provided for by those of working age
• Ageism Age statuses are socially constructed - old age is often constructed as a problem. Negative stereotyping often portrays the old as incompetent and a burden. 

Policy implications 

(Hirsch 2005) argues that we will need new policies to finance a longer old age. This could be done either by paying more in taxes or by raising the retirement age, or both

Old age in modern society 

Life is structured into fixed age stages and age-related identities, such as pupil, worker or pensioner.

Old age in postmodern society 

The fixed stages of the life course have broken down. This gives individuals a greater choice of lifestyle, whatever their age.

Inequality among the old 

Class The middle class have bigger pensions and savings, and a longer life expectancy. Gender Women’s lower earnings and role as carers mean lower pensions. They are also subject to sexist as well as ageist stereotyping.