Cultural variations

AO1: VI & K meta analysis of findings from 32 studies of attachment behaviour. Over 2,000 strange situation in 8 different countries. Interested in whether inter and intra cultural variations exist. Differences were small variations between cultures. Secure was most common in every country, avoidance was next most common except Israel and Japan. Intra cultural variations 1.5x greater and inter cultural variations. Secure attachment is the norm and supports the view that attachment is innate. Cultural similarities i.e. Tronick et al, Cultural differences i.e. Grossman&Grossman, Takahashi found no type A. 

AO3: Nation rather than culture- Compared countries rather than cultures, in each country there are different subcultures i.e. rural vs urban Japanese. Urban were more like the West and secure whereas rural found over representation of resistant individuals (Van Izjendoorn and Sagi). Caution should be taken when assuming an individual sample is representative of the wider population/particular culture.

Cultural bias- Attachment, argued by Rothbaum generally has a Western bias, The theory is so rooted in American culture. Rothbaum compared Japanes and US culture. Continuity doesn't have the same meaning, the West proposed those who are more secure, go on to be more socially and emotioanlyl competent adults. This is defined in individuation. Opposite is true in Japan, competence is represented by the inhibition of emotional expression and being more group orientated.

Similarities no innately determined- VI & K suggest some similarities might be from mass media which spread parenting ideas. As a result, children over the world are exposed to similar influences and so, the similarities may be due to the increasing global culture,  not biological influences.