- British cities associated with crime since the industrial revolution
- Robert park, Ernest Burgess(1925) - the area closest to the central business district, where housing is cheapest, was the most criminogenic.
- area mainly populated by the poor & students - this zone of transition has high crime because residents can't afford to secure their property, are unable to distinguish criminals from residents, rarely form associations, and may themselves be desperate enough to commit crime
- Subcultures more likely to be formed because of cultural heterogeneity and social disorganisation with deviant values spread through cultural transmission.
High crime rates in Britain are just as likely on council estates as they are in inner city areas, as the former have a high proportion of problem families
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