Crime and Deviance

Crime = Any act which breaks the laws of society. Social control is enforced by state agencies.

Deviance = Behaviour which moves away from conventional norms and values.

Deviant but not criminal = Burping, Not queuing

Criminal but not deviant = Speeding, Parking on Yellow Lines

Criminal and Deviant = ****, Murder, Paedophilla

Biological Explanation - Lombroso sort to find physical criminal characterists e.g. Long arms or sloping foreheads. Sociologists find 'born bad' determinsism dangerous and prefer to normalise crime.

Social Construction - If Crime and Deviance Definitions change it can't be inherently wrong but culturally specific therefore it is created and defined by that society. E.g Polygamy is accepted in some cultures but not in the Western World.

Crime is relative to the time, place and culture.

Crime and Society - Crime shows that we have freedom to make our own choices but also allows for boundary maintenance.

Durkheim - Crime is inevitable as not everyones effectively socialised, Crime has Positive functions and the Perfect amount of crime will keep society healthy to avoid anomie.

Positive Functions - Boundary Maintenance (communal condemnation to reinforce values, reaffirms solidarity through reaction) is shown in Cohens media dramatisation to create folk devils. Crime creates adapation and change (all change starts with an act of deviance then either rises to new culture or dies out) by allowing society scope to challenge norms. Too Low Crime = Repressive society. Too High Crime = threatens societal bonds.

Polsky - *********** safely channels desires away from adultery

Cohen - Warning society isn't functioning

Evaluation - Doesn't give correct amount of crime, Assists functions doesn't mean its made for this purpose, Ignores affects on different groups e.g. victims, Leads to isolation

Deviation is a response to strain between the goals of society and the legitimate means to achieve them. Strain causes frustration and pressure to deviate in what is known as the strain to anomie. (Merton)

American Dream - expected to pursue the American Dream through means of qualifaications and career through a "meritocratic" system though disadvantaged groups are denied opportunities.

Types of Adaption:

• Conformist - typically middle class - accept goals and legit means.
• Rebellion - political radicalist - reject goals and replace with new ones
• Retreatism - tramps, drug addicts - reject goals and means (drop out)
• Innovation - typically lower class - accept goals but use illegit means
• Ritualism - dead end routine jobs - give up on goals but maintain means

Evaluation - assumes value consensus, focuses on individuals not groups, ignores power of ruling class enforcement, over deterministic, takes offical stats at face value, only accounts for utilitarian crime.

Cohen (Status Frustration) - Argues lower class people are frustrated because they have the cultural goals but not the institutional means to achieve them. Young people want status, respect and value; something that middle class pupils get from teachers, parents and peers. W/C boys denied status at school so earn their status by creating their own norms or illegitimate hierarchys through non-utilitarian crimes and deliquent behaviour.

Cloward and Ohlin - Different types of crimes groups commit, for example, where you live dictating the criminal activities avaliable. Criminal subcultures in areas of criminal hierarchy such as criminal careers which mirror legitimate businesses. Conflict subcultures in areas of low social sohesion and high population turnover with high territorial or respect driven violence. Retreatest subcultures are the result of being unsuccessful in society and other two subcultures.

Contemporary Examples - Street gangs living in Favelas of Rio and gangs of South Africa show that they're not often rejectiving societies values but conforming to their own.

Miller - W/C do not use the same mainstream values but their own "focal concerns" including risk taking which leads to different criminal activity as a cure for boredom of school and factory jobs such as joy-riding to seek excitement.

Evaluation - Matza (interactionalist) suggests the following issues in subcultural theory:

• Most young working class people face status frustration but do not become delinquents
• Only a minority of youth actually become delinquents
• Some young people drift in and out of delinquency but give it up as an adult
• When justifying or explaining delinquency, young people rarely make reference to membership of subcultures
• Subcultural theories neglect the role of the police who target young working class people but ignore similar behvaiour in high status groups

Interactionalism focuses on the interaction not the structures of society. There is no universal definition of deviance so it is a matter of interpretation.

Becker

• Social Construction - No act is inherently criminal or deviant but rather becomes deviant when it is labelled therefore the concept is socially constructed and requires both the act itself and the social label to be deviant. It is dependent on the context in which it occurs.
• Agency of Control -  Agencies of control e.g. the police work on behalf of powerful groups to label and define less powerful groups as a problem leading to greater surveillance and control.

Cicourel - Officers typifications or stereotypes lead them to concentrate on certain 'types' with reinforced bias. So they focus on working class as types to offend or reoffend so prevent non-custodial sentences whereas middle class youths get a more negotiable justice as they're less likely to be charged as their parents can negotiate a sentence.

Lemert - Primary deviance is the insignificant deviant act that has not been publically labelled, Whereas Secondary deviance is the result of societal reaction (labelling) which can involve being caught and stigmatised as a crimnal which can then become their "master status". This is likely to provoke further reactions such as prejudice from society and may cause them to pursue a deviant career as they can't get a legitimate job. (Links to disintegrative shaming (Braithwaite)

Labelling Process - 1. Label is attached by police or courts, 2. Label becomes master status overriding other statuses, 3. Labelled person accepts the label as they rely on how others see us, 4. Self-fufilling Prophecy: we act in accordance to the label.

Deviance Amplification - Idea that sensationalist reporting by the newspapers distorts the act of crime and deviance and increases public awareness. Public pressure is put on agencies of control to act creating a moral panic, which in turn produces higher levels of deviance as a response to the control. Seen in Cohens Folk Devils.

Evaluation - Shows defining deviance is complex, that they're relative as opposed to universal and unchangeable, Draws attention to consequences of labelling, Deviant act is more important than the reaction as they know what they're doing is wrong, fails to explain the origin of deviance, implies once labelled a deviant career is inevitable, Left realists argue it over-romanticizes deviance and blames the agents of control.

Criminogenic Capitalism - Crime is inevitable in capitalism. Working class commit utilitarian and non-utilitarian crimes because of poverty, constant advertising, alienation and lack of control. Even ruling class feel pressure to commit crime to get ahead. Crime is a rational response to the capitalist system (Gordon)

The state and law making - All laws seve the ruling class. Chambliss states laws to protect private property are the cornerstone of the capitalist society. The working class and ethnic minorities are punished harshly whilst crimes of the powerful go unnoticed due to selective enforcement (Reiman). Snider found that the capitalist state is reluctant to pass laws that regulate business activity or threaten profitability

Ideological functions of the law - Laws don't just punish but perform functions to keep capitalism stable. Health and safety laws keep the working class able to work (Pearce). Seeing crime as a working class issue diverts it away from capitalism. Seeing criminals as disturbed disguises the true nature of crime. 

Evaluation -  Shows link between law and ruling class, Highlights selective reinforcement, Is deterministic, Switzerland and Japan are capitalist but have low crime rates, Prosecutions against Ruling class do happen, Left realists states marxism ignores intra-class crime.

Theory by Taylor, Walton and Young Known as Critical Criminology.

Anti-determinism - Traditional Marxism is deterministic and that workers are driven to crime out of necessity. They argue that crime is a meaningful action and a conscious choice by the actor. This is typically a political move e.g redistributing wealth. They're not puppets of capitalism but striving to make change

Fully social theory of Deviance - Combines Traditional Marxism with ideas from interactionalism and labelling theory

Evaluation -  Gender blind (male criminality at expense of female criminality), Romanticises as Robin Hoods, Doesn't take crime seriously, Ignores effect on victims, too general to explain, to idealistic to tackle (Burke) 

Wilson and Herrnstein - Some people are biologically predisposed to commit crime e.g aggression

Underclass Theory - Most crime is commited by the underclass (unemployed). Upsurge in Lone parent families has led to poor socialisation. Underclass lack morals and paternal discipline (Murray). The welfare state is responsible for the underclass due to welfare dependency undermining commitment and obligation to support eachother and live off benefits (Marsland).

Rational Choice Theory (Clarke) - Decision to commit crime is based on calculation of likely consequences. If rewards outweigh the costs then crime is greater.

Control Theory (Hirschi) - People are rational in actions and choices but most people don't commit crime because of four life controls. The four controls are: Attachment to family relationships, Commitment to buidling a career, Involvement in community life and Belief in rules.

Evaluation - Underclass isn't deviant that aims for unemployment but beyond control, no empirical evidence of an underclass, New right leads to class equalities in victimisation, overstates reationality of criminals.

Lea and Young in victimisation survey found that working class and black people, especially the elderly had realistic fear of crime.

Relative Deprivation - Commit crime due to resentment that, unfairly, others are better off than them due to the consumer culture. W/C youths feel relatively deprived to middle class while afro-carribbean compare themselves to Britons feeling they're worse off through no fault of their own. This is heightened with individualism causing criminal responses (ASBO/Violence)

Marginalisation - People feel marginalised with little power to change the situation and the frustration due to negative treatment causes feelings of further hostility due to lack of clear goals or representation causing violence or rioting.

Subculture - Subculture is a collective solution to the problem of relative deprivation. Different groups produce different subcultural solutions e.g. closing the deprivation gap or seeking a theodicy of disprivllege. Pryce identified, in Bristol, the hustlers, rastafarians, saints and respectables. Subcultures still subscribe to goals of society but opportunities are blocked so resort to street crime.

Policing - 

• Improved policing - Crime can only reduce with assistance of communities. Military style policing in inner city alienates the local poplulation with racial profiling and stop and searches on black people can lead to accusations of institutional racism. Police must regain confidence of community so they're comfortable to provide information
• Structural Causes - Main cause is deeply unequal nature of capitalism which undermines social cohesion and causes envy, frustration and hostility. Therefore can only be reduced by improving opportunities for decent standard of living, by reducing income and wealth inequalities, with jobs for all and improved housing and environment

Evaluation - Hughes states it draws attention to the unromantic reality, highlights effect on victims, shows victims are members of deprived groups, little empirical evidence to support, doesn't explain why W/C and black youth don't turn to crime, focuses on subcultural criminal responses, focuses on street crime over white collar and fails to account for opportunist crime by adults.

Official Stats compiled from goverment like the police and courts. Only states crimes that have been recorded by the police as a crime (only 40% of reported crime is recorded due to discretionary powers of police) and crimes that have been reported to the police (90% of all crime dealt with is reported by the public.

Crimes may not be reported due to:

• Fear of reprisal
• Lack of awareness
• Fear it may not be taken seriously
• Crime is too trivial

Therefore this gives an inaccurate picture of crime due to what is known as the dark figure of crime.White collar crimes are dealt with administratively. Only serious crimes from incidences are records. Rules for counting always change. Lack of recording makes clear up rates look higher.BCS victim survey takes place every 2 years from 1982 - 2000 but every year since and includes unreported and unrecorded crimes but only 75% is comparable with police stats. Self report questionaires ask whether a crime has been commited over the past year. BCS = 10.7m crimes commited OS = 4.7m. Violent crimes = 1/5 crimes. Crime peaked in 1995 and declined.

Girls and women appear to commit less crime. 4/5 convicted are males. Women more likely to commit theft or property offences while men more likely to commit violence or sexual offences. Women are less likely to be reported or prosecuted.

Chivalry thesis - Pollak argues that men are protective of women and hate to accuse them of things therefore the justice system is more lenient on them. Flood-Page et al found that 1/11 self reported women had not been cautioned or prosecuted. (Farrington and Morris study of sentencing disproves, Buckle and Farrington disproves more thefts in women, Lesser crimes mistaken as leniency)

Control theory - Heidensohn found womens behaviour is conformist and society imposes greater control and reduces opportunities to offend; Control in the home, at work and in public. Carlen found Women conform due to class deal of material rewards e.g. standard of living and leisure or the gender deal of material and emotional rewards for family life and conventional gender role.

Evaluation of Carlen and Heidensohn - Sees females as determined by external forces. Carlens sample was small)

Bias Against Women - Heidensohn found more harshly punished due to breaking norms. For example their are double standards against premature or promiscuous sexual activity and those who don't conform to monogamous hetrosexuality and motherhood are punished more harshly. Carlen suggests the same for custodial sentences such as punishment is less for the seriousness of the crime but more an assessment of them as wife, mother or daughter. In **** cases the victim is on trial not the defendant to defend her respectability.

Sex role Theory - The way girls are socialised is to be quiet, obidient and passive not to be aggressive or break the law. Parsons uses his instrumental and expressive roles to explain this. Women at home gives girls a role model whilst the boys make up for models with compensatory compulsory masculinity causing them to turn to crime.

Liberation thesis - Alder aruges that if feminists are right and women only commit less crime because of patriarchy then greater equality should see a rise in women offenders for violence and white collar crime due to the rise of laddette culture. 1981-1997 under 18yr olds convicted of ciolent offences doubled from 65/100000 to 135/100000. (Female crime rose in the 1950s before the liberation movement, most criminals W/C the least affected by liberation, Chesney-Ling found more male offences but they linked to prostitution, overestimates liberation)

Messerschmidt - Boys in the UK are socialised into a hegemonic masculine value system that stresses the difference from women. To be a real man they must have:

• Respect and reputation
• Power, authority and control over others
• Objectification of women
• Toughness e.g Aggression, Confrontation and Force
• Territorial loyalty
• Emotionally Hard Personality
• Auti-authority Personality
• Risk taking and Pleasure seeking Personality

W/C youths experience of education is under-achievement causing anti-social subcultures to achieve these hegmonic masculine values of which operate in and out of school. Masculine values however are not just isolated to the W/C. (Fails to explain why not all men commit crime to accomplish these values. Debate on masculinity as a cause of crime) 

Winlow (Postmodernity and Masculinity) - Closing of manual labour jobs and opening in the service sector in a night time leisure economy of clubs, pubs and bars. These provide legal employment, lucrative criminal opportunities and a way to express masculinity.

Studied bouncers in Sunderland and found that in an area of de-industrialisation and unemployment, working as a bouncer provided paid work and illegal business ventures. 'Hard men' earn status through ability to use violence which is maintained using a body capital by bodybuilding.  Criminality is a entrepreneurial concern. 

Ethnic Minorities are over-represented in the criminal system: black people make up 2.8% of the overall population but 11% of the prison population and are 7x more likely to be stopped and searched than white counterparts.

Victim Survey - Asks which crimes they have been a victim of during the past 12 months. Gives a clue to ethnicity and offending from victims. In crimes of muggings, black people are significantly over represented by victims. They also show that a lot of the crime is intra-ethnic so takes place within an ethnic group. (Relies on Victims memories so can over identify blacks (Bowling and Phillips), only cover personal crimes, exclude under 16s and exclude crimes by and against organisations)

Self Report Studies - Asks to disclose their own dishonest and violent behaviour. From 2500 people, Graham and Bowling found that black (43%) and white (44%) people had similar rates of offending. Sharp and Budd found that whites and mixed ethnicity people were most likely to say they commited an offence (40%) whilst black people were at 28%. These studies challenge the stereotype of black people being more likely to offend but support that Asians are the least likely to offend.

Policing - Phillips and Bowling found that there has been more allegations of oppressive policing in minority ethnic communities including paramilitary tactics and excessive surveillance.

Stop and Search - More likely to be stopped and searched (7x more likely) thought only a small proportion are arrested. Phillips and Bowling found they had little faith in the police due to this. Explanations for this include Police Racism (Stephen Lawrence Case) or Ethnic Differences in offending which affects discretion as low discretion(from description) or high discretion(no specific intelligence) or Demographic factors (More likely to do with employment, age and calss than ethnicity)

Arrests/Cautions - 3.6 times the arrests for blacks to whites due to them being more likely to deny the offence and exercise legal advice preventing caution.

Prosecution - CPS likely to drop cases against ethnic minorities due to lack of evidience/stereotypes (Phillips and Bowling)

Conviction - Black and Asian less likely to be found guilty 60% white to 52% ethnic minorities.

Prison - Over 1/4 of prison male population is ethnic minorities. 5x more likely to be in prison and less likely to be granted bail.

Left Realism - Reflects the real differences in offending. Racism has led to marginalisation and economic exclusion facing unemployment, poverty and poor housing. They can form deliquent subcultures to commit utilitarian crimes such as robbery as a means of coping with relative deprivation.  Whilst police can act on stereotypes, this cannot make up the entire difference as the public report on the crimes commited. There must be selective police racism if Blacks have a higher criminality than Asians. (Police stereotype asians and blacks differently not being selectively racist but generally, Stereotypes changed after 9/11 and now view both as dangerous explaining the increased criminality)

Neo-Marxist - Differences are the outcome of social construction of stereotypes of ethnic minorities. Gilroy states black criminality is a myth and are no more criminal than any other, but rather stereotypes criminalise groups. Ethnic minority crime is political resistance against racism rooted to early struggles with British Imperialism.However, first gen immigrants were law abiding so not passed down, most crime is intra-ethnic and Asians are similar if not lower in crime rates thus only racist to blacks (Lea and Young).Hall et al argue that the ruling class remain in power due to the moral panic of muggings in the 1970s disguising economic issues. This served as a scapegoat to distract attention and represented disintergration. However, is is inconsistent saying crime isn't rising (Downes and Rock) and doesn't show how the crisis causes moral panic and that it is a real threat.

Taken recent interest in the victimisation of ethnic minorities.

Racist victimisation occurs when an individual is selected as a target because of their race, ethnicity or religion. Brought more into public focus by the racist murder of Stephen Lawrence in 1993. 

Information of victimisation comes from victim surverys and british crime surveys covering racist incidents and religiously or racially aggravated offences.

61,000 racist incidents in England and Wales in 2006/7. Though many go unreported estimating about 184,000 incidents in total. 42,000 racially or religiously aggravated offences. 

Mixed Ethnic backgrounds have greater risk of victimisation (36%) than blacks (27%), asians (25%) or whites (24%). May be due to other differences than ethnicity such as age, gender etc. 

Sampson and Phillips: racist victimisation tends to occur over time with repeated minor incidents.

Responses: Situational crime prevention - fireproof doors and letter boxes and self-defence campaigns. Understood in context of police under protecting these groups.

Crime and deviance make up 41-71% of quality press and radio news (Ericson et al's study in Toronto) and 30% of british news space (Williams and Dickinson). 

Shows interest in crime but give a distorted view of it to the public 

Schlesinger and Tumber - change in media trends first murders and petty crimes (1960s) then to murder with petty being of little interest (1990s) 1990s saw rise in coverage for drugs, terrorism, child abuse etc. Walby and Soothill - rise in reports of **** cases from under a quarter in 1951 to over a third in 1985.

The media paints a distorted picture of crime as the news is a social construct. It is the product of a social process in which some stories are selected and others aren't. Cohen and Young found news to be manufactured rather than discovered.

Criteria to be newsworthy: Immediacy, Dramatisation, Personalisation, Higher-status, Simplification, Novelty/Unexpectedness, Risk and Violence.

News gives great focus to crime as it is abnormal and extraordinary. They're more likely to show stories of victims to focus on vulnerability. They're also more likely to show a crime if it is the 'ideal victim' - high status, old or young, female, innocent etc.

Fictional representations of crime are also important to our knowledge. Mandel estimates from 1945 to 1984 over 10 billion crime thrillers were sold worldwide, whilst 25% of prime time TV and 20% of films are about crime.

Fictional representations show Surettes law of opposites in that they are opposite to offical stats. Property crime is underepresented whilst violence, drugs and sex crimes are over represented. There are 3 trends in fictional crimes - reality infotainment show young, non-white offenders, increasingly showing the police as corrupt and victims are more central.

The media could cause crime and deviance through: imitation of deviant role models, arousal from imagery, desensitisation from repeated viewing, transmitting knowledge of techniques, as a target for crime, stimulates desires of unaffordable goods, portrays police as incompetent and glamourising offending. 

Most studies found that exposure to media violence has at most a small and limited effect on audiences.Livingstone - people are preoccupied with effects of the media in an attempt to preserve childhood as a time of innocence. 

The media exaggerates unusual, violent crimes as well as exaggerating the risks of certain groups as victims creating an unrealistic fear of crimes. Gerbner et al found heavy users of television to have a higher fear of crime. However these trends don't prove that media causes fear. Sparks notes the media effects stating that media as a cause of crime or fear ignores the meanings by the viewers.

Left realists argue that mass media increases the sense of relative deprivation, among the poor and marginalised. Lea and young argue it creates a standardised image of lifestyle in areas of popular culture and recreation. Media presents appearance of a good life of leisure and consumer goods. Merton argues pressure to conform means media promotes crime.

Moral entrepreneurs who disprove of a particular behaviour may use the media to put pressure on authorities to do something. The campaign to do so can negatively label a behaviour and possibly change the law. A moral panic is an exaggerated over-reaction by society to a percieved problem usually driven by the media.

In a moral panic, the media identify a group as folk devils or threats to societal values then present this group in a negative, stereotypical way and exaggerate the scale of the issue. Moral entrepreneurs or 'respectable' people then condemn the group and behaviour which can usually lead to a crack down on  the group which can create self fufilling prophecy to amplify the issue.

Cohen studied the medias response to two groups of working class teenagers, the mods and rockers, at seaside resorts froim 1964 to 1966. There were few scuffles however the disorder was relatively minor. The media then exaggerated and distorted the idea through dramatised reporting and predicted further conflict. They then symbolised the groups look to be connected to the problem. The reporting was argued to amplify their deviance due to increased responses causing further marginalisation to cause self-fufilling prophecy.

Cohen states that Moral panics often occur in times of social change to reflect the anxieties felt by values being undermined and therefore is the result of a boundary crisis. 

Functionalists view moral panics as a response to a sense of anomie created by change. The dramatisation of a folk devil raises the collective conscience and reasserts social controls.

Hall et al argue that moral panics are found in capitalist contexts. The mugging moral panic of the 1970s served to distract attention from the crisis of capitalism, divide the working class and legitimate authoritarian rule. 

Moral panics are criticised on several grounds:

• It assumes the societal reaction is disproportionate, though left realists believe that fear of crime is in fact rational.
• It doesn't state what turns the 'amplifier' on and off - why are some problems turned to a panic and others note and why do they not go on indefinitely
• McRobbie and Thornton argue that moral panics are now routine and hold little impact. Also there is little consensus on what is deviant in late modern society.

The Internet has created moral panic because of the speed and scale in which it has grown. Thomas and Loader define cyber-crime as computer-mediated activities that are either illegal or considered illicit by some that are conducted through global electronic networks.

Jewkes notes that the internet creates opportunities for conventional crimes such as fraud and new crimes with new tools such as piracy. 

Wall identifies 4 catagories of cyber crime: 

• Cyber-trespass: crossing bounderies into others cyber property
• Cyber-deception and theft: includes identity theft, phising and violation of intellectual property rights.
• Cyber-***********: including that involving minors and opportunities for children to access.
• Cyber-violence: doing psychlogical or inciting physical harm such as cyber stalking or sending unsolicited, threatening or offensive emails and those against minority groups. 

Policing cyber crime is difficult due to the scale of the internet and lack of police resources. It also poses problems of jurisdiction due to the globalised nature. However new ICT provides greater surveillance and control opportunities using CCTV, fingerprints and databases (Jewkes)

Globalisation is the widening, deepening and speeding up of world wide interconnectedness in all aspects of life (Held et al)

Global crime economy - There has been an interconnectedness of crime across national borders such as transnational organised crime. Castells identifies that there is now a global criminal economy worth over £1 trillion a year that can take the form of trafficking (arms,nuclear materials,people,body parts etc), sex tourism, cyber crime, green crime, international terrorism, drug trade and money laundering. It has both a supply and demand side which is partially responsible for the scale of transnational crime. This supply is linked to globalisation, third world countries find drug cultivation appealing to develop due to large numbers of improvished.

Global risk consciousness - there are now new insecurities and a mentality of risk consciousness in which the risk is global rather than confined to certain places. These fears of risks mayt be rational or not, but much of our knowledge about them comes from the media. For example, the fear of immigration stems from them moral panic caused by the media. One result of this risk consciousness is intensification of social control such as tighter border control. Another result is international cooperation to prevent risks.

Capitalism - Taylor argues globalisation has given free rein to market forces to create greater inequality and rising crime. The switch to lower wage countries for production reduces security, increases unemployment and poverty. This means there is deregulation preventing more jobs but there is still a marketisation promoting consumerism causing more crime, especially in the working class. It also creates opportunities for elite groups such as insider tranding and offshore accounts to prevent taxation.

Hobbs and Dunningham - the way crime is organised links to economic changes from globalisation. They have now taken a hub format that is loose-knit and network with individuals seeking opportunities.

Glocal organisation - New forms of organisation that have international links, e.g drug trade, but is still rooted in its local context. Crime works in a Glocal system in which it is locally based with global connections (Hobbs and Dunningham) therefore it will vary from place to place but is still influenced by the global avaliability of drugs abroad. The changes associated with globalisation leads to a change in crime patterns from rigid hierarchys to loose opportunistic entrepreneurial criminals. No evidence to suggest this is new or that the old has disappeared but they're equally ungeneralisable to criminal activities elsewhere.

Capitalism - Taylor argues globalisation has given free rein to market forces to create greater inequality and rising crime. The switch to lower wage countries for production reduces security, increases unemployment and poverty. This means there is deregulation preventing more jobs but there is still a marketisation promoting consumerism causing more crime, especially in the working class. It also creates opportunities for elite groups such as insider tranding and offshore accounts to prevent taxation.

Mcmafia(Glenny) - Organisations that emerged from russia and eastern europe following the fall of communism. The deregulation of global markets coninciding with the fall of the soviet union and origins of transnational crime. Russian government deregulated most sectors of the economy after the fall of communism except commodities. Anyone with access to funds could buy up oil, gas, diamonds or metals for next to nothing which could be sold abroad for astronomical profit creating the oligarchs. This was a period of great disorder and those with access to funds formed alliances with ex-convicts and mafias (Chechen) to pursue self interest. The Chechen mafia franschised its operations to other groups which became a brand for protection in other towns. Billionaires found protection for wealth and means of moving it out of the country. Criminal groups were key to the entry of the new Russian capitalist class and allowed them to build links around the world.