Challenges of an urban world

Each year hundreds of thousands of people move to cities, this is called urbanisation and it varies. Developed countries have increased amounts of people living in cities as there are more benefits than those in developing countries, however, as they develop rates of urbanisation there will increase. Developing countries have increased population growth in cities and more people are migrating there due a better chance at life

Mumbai has a population of around 20 million, around 1000 new migrants arrive every day. Cities grow for two main reasons:

• Rural-urban migration
• Natural increase 

Rural-urban migration Rural areas in developing countries gave few jobs, apart from working on land, people often live in poverty. These are push factors and there are more. In the citirw there are more jobs, better education + health facilities, entertainment and most better off. This is called rural-ruban migration.

Natural increase:  People migrate to cities. These people tend to be in 20s and 30s often start families once they are settled. London's birth rate is rising rapidly the number of children under 5 increased by 24%, it is this natural growth sometimes called internal growth which helps to drive up population of world's cities. 

A megacity is a city with a population of over 10 million people

Developing world megacities

Spatial growth: As cities grow in population, they also grow in space - spatial growth. Developing world cities are growing rapidlydue to industrialisation. Industries are often atracted by low tax rates but with little tax income governments don't have enough money to provide essential services. Many live in shanty towns often found on land that no one else wants.

Economic activity: All megacities act as service cenres but those in the developing world are ofte also important manufacturing centres. In developing world megacities thousands of people work in the informal economy 

Developed world megacities:

Spatial growth: Megacities in developed countries growing slower. Grown recently as a result of: merging with other cities nearby to form conurbations (Tokyo's population now includes Yokohama and Kawasaki. Sparwling which results in low population densities, most of the sprawl is caused by peoplemoving out to the suburbs where housing is cheaper and there's more space.

Economic activity: Most people in developed countries work in the formal economy with relatively few people working in the informal economy.

Megacities in developed world                                  Megacities in developing world

May have government buildings                               Dominated by manufacturing industries

HQ of TNCs, stock exchanges                                   Fewer TNC headquarters

Financial firms+other service industries dominate Very little tourism

Cultural institutions (opera+ballet)                           Cover vast area

Large tourist industry                                                 Informal housing

Efficient transport systems (metro)                          Fewer cultral institutions

Less heavy industry and manufacturing                  Poor transport systems

More formal economy                                                More informal economy

Tokyo being the biggest megacity in the world has both positive and negatives to its lifestyle:

Positives:

• Tokyo is the economic centre of Japan and home to the headquarters of many multi-national coporations
• Tokyo is Japan's cultural centre, with many museums, theatres and festivals
• Japan is the most innovative nation in the world for developing new technologies
• Tokyo life provides an electic mix of traditional Japanese traditions and architecture 
• Tokyo universities attract students from across Japan and from abroad for the education low cost of living and city life
• Tokyo has one of the best transport systems in the world and Narita International Airport connections to most of the world
• Crime in Tokyo is relatively low compared to other major world cities
• Students and young professionals are attracted to the city for the shopping and the varied nightlife
• Tokyo has some of the cleanest streets in the world, with litter being virtually non-existent

Negatives: 

• Flats in Tokyo are tiny, often no more than 40m^2. Some have kitches that are only 1m^2. Few houses have gardens 
• Tokyo is always very crowded, busy and noisy 
• 2.5 million people travel to the city each day for work, putting additional pressure on transport infrastructure.
• There are hardly any parks or open spaces for relaxation and fresh air.
• Air quality in the city is reduced by traffic fumes. This could have health implications for the population. 
• Pushers’ are used to cram people into trains.
• Landfill is dumped into the sea in Tokyo Bay to make new land (reclaimed land)
• Building land is the most expensive in the world.
• As many as 1,500 earthquakes are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of four to six on the Richter scale are not uncommon

A 2007 report, produced for the WWF, showed that Winchester was the British city with the largest eco-footprint per person (6.52gha) while Sailsbury, Newport and Plymouth had the joint smallest (5.01gha).

Ecological footprint: eco-footprint, the area of a land and sea that supplies all of the stuff that you need to live – land for your home, your food, the energy you use, plus all the materials you buy.

Salisbury has a small eco-footprint whereas Winchester has a high eco-footprint.

Incomes in Winchester are higher than in Salisbury, so people in Winchester are wealthier than in Salisbury, so people in Winchester consume more goods and energy – all of which increase their eco-footprint.

Both citites have high employment rates, but people commute further from Winchester than from Salisbury. This increases Winchester’s carbon footprint. More people in Salisbury walk, cycle or take public transport meaning that they generate less CO2.

The people who live and work in cities now consume vast amounts of food from all over the world and energy at home, work and in getting to work. Cities have become places of concentrated resource consumption.

Ecofootprints: An eco-footprint measures the area of land needed to:

• Provide all the resources and services consumed
• Absorb all the waste produced

It's measured in gha, London's footprint is 4.54gha which is almost twice the global average. London needs an area over 200 times the size of the city itself to support it. 

Dealing with waste: Costs £580 million per year to collec, transport, treat and dispose of. Most is sent to landfill. When the landfill sites are full the remaining waste that isn't recycled may be incinerated within the city. 

Prevention: Waste increases as cities grow + people become wealthier. London now produces 10% lesss household waste as a result of an increase in the use of e-mail and a reduction in packaging etc.

Recycling: London not as good as recycling as res of the UK. Only 32% recycled (avg 30%) and 27 out of 33 Borough Councils below this level. 

Inputs: Food: 6.9 millon tonnes a year which is the equivalent to 8 billion meals. 81% comes outside the UK

Energy: All of the energy is imported. 13.2 million tonnes of oil. London's energy is made up of 21% electricity 23% liquids 55% gas <1% renewable. Despite a rising population the use of energy as remained constant at 42% of total energy usd. Total energy use has fallen by 10% since 2000.

Transport: 64 billion passenger kilometres are travelled each year. Use of public transport is rising. Now accounts for 41% of all London journeys compared with 37% for private transport cars

Materials consumed 49 million tonnes

Outputs (waste produced): 44.7 million tonnes of CO2 (In 2008). Has gone down by 11% since 2000. 20 million tonnes of waste a year. Organic waste is released into rivers. 49% of all waste sent to landfill (down from 72% in 2000). 32% of all waste is recucled or composted, still lowest in England. 

London's eco-footpring is higher than the UK average in terms of housing, food and private services, however, it's lower than average for transport. Many people use public transport rather than cars. London also has policies to discourage high-polluting vehicles, this helps to reduce size of London's eco-footprint. 

Reducing energy consumption: Energy strategy focused on lowering CO2 emissions and reducin energy use. In order to combat climate change and reduce energy consumption city is planning:

• Major retro-fitting programmes
• Ten low-carbon zones to reduce energy emissions including fitting solar panels and insulating buildings.
• A new low-carbon energy supply for London. 
• Turn down the thermostat, shower rather than have a bath 
• Turn off lights when they are not needed

Reducing waste generation: London plans to reduce amount of household waste produced by 10% by 2020 a swell as reducing municipal waste. 

• Re-using waste, 20,000 tonnes of municipal waste by 2020
• Providing cheap and accessible recycling + compositing services
• Providing recycling bins all over the city
• Developing waste-burner power stations to generate heat and power 

Encouraging clean technology: Red buses go green: All new London buses planned to be hybdrid from 2012. Conventional enginge combined with electric motor-makes buses quieter,cleaner+more fuel effecient.                          

Electric vehicles: 'Source London' launched in 2011, UK's first city wide electric vehicle charging point network. 1300 charging points throughout city. More than petrol stations in London. Intention to increase hybrid and electric cars being used in Greater London.                                                                                                                                      

Discouraging high-polluting vehicles: 2008-attempt to improve London's air quality, Greater London Low Emission Zone set up. Worst polluting diesel vehicles either have to meet minimum standards or pay a daily charge to drive in London. Scheme expanded to cover more vehicles.                                                                                                  

Reducing congestion and pollution: Main response to congestion+pollution was to intrdouce congestion charge-2003. Operates in Central London from 7AM to 6PM Monday to Friday. Resulted in 6% increase in bus passengers during charging hours. Raising of money to invst in improving London's transport. Initially fall in traffic in charging zone, back to level it was before charge. However, without charge congestion would be higher. London’s congestion charge zone makes people pay if they drive cars in central London, locals around 90 pence for most drivers 10 12 pound per day. If car emits 100g or less of CO2 it is free. Fines can reach 180 pounds if you forget to pay.                                                        

Black cab: Black cabs which are 15 years old have to be replaced with eco-friendly CO2 emission technology. Black cab drivers will have to pass eco-friendly driving courses to ensure they can drive sustainably.Government spending 1 million pounds to help drivers upgrade black cabs which produce too much CO2Cab drivers converted to food oil, better than CO2 but not perfect                                                                                                                                          

Encouraging cycling: Barclay's Cycle Hire Scheme launched 2010, 6000 new bikes for hire from 400 docking stations. Cycling green+healthy way to travel, part of plan to increase cycling by 400% by 2026. Barclay's Cycle

Superhighways are being built to improve cycling in London. Four routes been launched, eight more by 2015. Superhighways are least 1.5m blue surface motorists spot easily. Provide fast,direct cycle routs in+out of central London 

Mumbai: Population: 

• 20 million (predicted to become the world's lagest city in 2050.
• Population growth=2.9% a year an example of hyperurbanisation
• 60% of the population live in poverty (in slums like Dharavi)

Size and spatial growth:

• 603km^2
• 1000 people arrive in Mumbai every day 
• Navi Mumbai has been built on the mainland opposite Mumbai. Over 1 million people live there mostly middle class people moving out of Mumbai.

Economic activities: 

• Mumbai is the commercial capital of India, economic activities include:
• Services (e.g baking, IT and call centres)
• Manufacturing (e.g. textiles and engineering)
• Construction
• Entertainment and leisure (Bollywood)

LA: Population: 

• 12.9 million (17.6 million total population of the Greater Los Angeles Area)
• Population growth = 1.1% a year, faster than most other megacities but slower than developing

Size and spatial growth:

• 12,52 km^2 while greater Los Angeles covers 87,945 km^2
• Los Angeles grew rapdily in the 1960s and 70s because people from other parts of the USA were attracted by climate and lifestyle 

Economic activities:

• Trade (the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach are the fifth busiest in the world)
• Entertainment (Hollywood, TV, Music)
• Aerospace and technology, oil, fashion and clothing, tourism. 

Informal economy: The informal economy in India is large, these people sell food from roadside stalls, clean car windscreens etc. The workers don't do jobs that earn a regular age. Make and sell goods and services unofficially often on a 'cash-in-hand' basis without job secuirty or contracts. Don't have health and safety protection or pension scheme. Can't work=no pay. They don't pay tax. This is problematic to government. India has also attracted many large companies who don't pay tax as they operate in tax free zones. Without tax the city authorities can't provide services such as clean water, sewage pipes or electricity supplies. 

Slum housing: Over 1 million live in Dharavi, a well established slum. Lot of homes made from brick wood and steel, many have electricity. Dharavi has well established communities that provide self-help clinics, food halls and meeting places. Often run their own businesses there in terms of pottery and selling things, provides income for people. Government wants to tear down the slums and replace them with high rise housing, some people offered a home on bottom floors. Others cannot and will be forced to migrate. They are also not allowed to operate business in their flats so despite better living conditions for some it means those not on the register will be evicted.

Urban population: Rapid urbanisation+industrialisation resulted in environmental problems including water pollution. The Mithi River has been used by factories as a dump for untreated industrial waste and the airport dumps untreated oil. 800 milion litres of untreated sewage go straight into river every day. 

Air pollution: Major problem, exhaust gases from vehicles and smoke from burning rubbish and factory chimneys pollute air. As economy grows electricity demand increases most of which generated by burning fossil fuels like coal. As a result large quantities of greenhouse gases (including carbon dioxide) are released into air. 

Migration is the movement of people from one area to another

Rural-urban migration: The movement of people from the countryside to built up areas.

3 push factors from India’s rural areas: Lack of opportunities for work, lack of facilities/health care. Lack of education

There are several push factors from India’s rural areas, for example, they have a lack of opportunities for work. This means that they may be living in poverty as they cannot earn a lot of money. There is also a lack of healthcare and other facilities in rural areas, therefore, some people may have to leave rural areas as they are old or are planning on having a family to prevent death from child birth. There’s also a lack of education in rural areas meaning some children may suffer from a lack of education in rural areas meaning they have to move to receive the benefit of education.  

Urban areas offer many people with job opportunities. This means that people can work there to support themselves and any family members that they may have if they move to the city as it makes it easier to receive a job. There are also plenty of health clinics allowing people to survive from diseases and also support the elderly. There are also many schools allowing children to attend school in order to benefit from a better life in the future. 

Benefits of migration (Donor rural areas surrounding Maharashtra): 

• Pressure reduced on resources such as water 
• Money sent back to village

Problems of migration:

• An elderly population is left, high death rate.
• People with skills and education most likely to leave; causes brain drain
• Mainly males migrate and divide families
• People of working age leaving village

Benefits of migration (Host urban areas Dharavi slum in Mumbai in Maharashtra state):

• Migrants earn money through recycling
• Migrants prepared to do dirty, unskilled jobs
• Migrants prepared to work long hours for a low salary

Problems of migration: 

• Money sent back to the village
• Migrants put pressure on local services
• Pressure on jobs in the cities
• Migrants can't afford to live in city apartments
• Migrants prepared to work long hours for a low salary
• Mainly males migrate a divide families
• Overcrowding in cities

Mumbai, India a megacity has slums, migrants tend to end up in these places as they are often poor. People often move to the cities for a better chance at work and the hope of developing a better life, every year people move to cities. This is called urbanisation. Most megacities are found in developed countries. 

Slums such as Dharavi develop, this can cause diseases to be spread around due to the fact that these slums are not government run. Subsequently sewage systems are nor official meaning diseases could easily spread. It can also cause overcrowding and if many people are contracting diseases they may due. Industries/TNCs are attracted to developing cities, this is because of the low minimum wage and relaxed building regulations allowing for maximum profits. People recieve jobs but are often exploited. 

Mumbai is an example of hyperurbanisation - where the urban population is growing so fast that the city cannot cope with people's needs. This also causes more pollution to be released into the local atmosphere as more people are travelling in vehicles and emit pollution. Leads to poor health conditions and damages the local environment. 

Most people work in the informal economy,. 

Economic activities can lead to the population growth and spatial growth of megacities. For example, Mambai, a city in a developing country can see an increase in population growth due to the fact that the cities often provide better jobs for people and provide the local population with occupations allowing people to earn more money. Subsequently, more people will move to the city which will in return cause for spatial growth to trigger as the city will become packed with people. Due to this population growth can lead to spatial growth as more people will be cramped into the cities meaning the city will have to trigger an expansion in order to support the population. 

• Schools: Plan to build new schools in slum area. Many children in slums go to school in main city but often face over an hour's walk to get there. Plan hopes to reduce death and injury as young childre walk along busy roadsides
• Sanitation and fresh water: Money spent provide safe drinking water-residents of slums-knocking down existing slum+building secure water pipes avoid contamination. Sewage installed help improve conditions those remaining in. 
• Building materials: Some areas slum dwellers given building materials to help secure safer housing+reduce risk of fire. Known as a "self-help scheme" (resident act on improving their own quality of life)
• Public transport improvements: Slums so narrow in places people must walk in single file. If government demolishes some of slums it promises to update public transport so that people living will find easier to get to work or school
• New parks constructed: Green areas built into slums in order that residents get some fresh air and some peace+quiet away from workhouses+bustling noises of slums. Improve visual quality of the slums
• Factory/workshopRelocated: To reduce pollution in slum area factories+workshops could be relocated to outskirts of city. Not be allowed in the high rise apartment blocks to reduce pollution
• High rise apartment less space required on ground. Existing slums knocked down+replaced. Existing slum dwellers offered 21 square metres of housing in new flats on the ground floor
• Tourism: Slum Tours: Rebrand slum and offer guided tours to area to see real Mumbai
• Cash to move: Slum dwellers offered money to move into countryside, can still commute for work. Less problem.

Mexico city has a population of 21 million, one of the world's largest cities. Three serious environmental chaallenges which it's vigorously addressing: air pollution, waste disposal, infant deaths. 

Problems: 

• Gases are released causing air pollution. For example, carbon monoxide. Sulphur dioxide.
• Vegetation dies so wildlife suffers. 
• Children and the elderly are particularly vulnerable, such as respiratory illnesses. School children sent home for a month due to pollution. Due to this they suffer from a lack of education for a month. 
• Vehicle exhausts and industries produce gases. 

Solution: 

• Changing the legal formula for petrol and diesel so that they now contain fewer pollutants.
• Building a new $2 billion underground train line which will reduce the number of cars and reduce average commuting times from 150 minutes to 78 minutes.
• Moving or closing down the worst polluting factories. 

Ecobici: Reduce number of vehicles that go through the city everyday recovering public space, reducing pollution and improving life quality. Introduced in 2009, bike programme; 275 stations + 4,000 bikes across city. 50,000 trips have been taken throughout city so far. Bikes have small tracks to hold bags of groceries, adjustable seats+automatic bikes. Cars are also seen as a prize possession so many people may ignore bikes and continue to drive to show off their car.

Car free days: Sunday, main finance area of city closed to all traffic except bikes so residents can bike around area they deem too dangerous on other days of week. Only small area closed to vehicles. 

Coloured cars: Each car recieves a colour, four different ones, each colour assigned a day, on that day car cannot go into city. Reduces cars on road, richer residents get around by having 2cars

EcoPaq: New parking system-meters to thousands of parking spots Mexico city streets where parking was free. Much on-street parkin controlled by underegulated valets/attendants. Government started to charge people to park their car.

Improving bus services: Providing funds for spare parts needed by buses in city. Many buses were unreliable and badly maintained which adds to pollution. Therefore, more buses are being implemented.

Improving wste problems:

• Encouraging more recycling
• Building a new plant to burn some waste to generate electricity
• Encouraging more composting
• Burying it in new landfills

Located in Beddington, South London.

ZED – stands for Zero-Energy-Development.

Is the UK’s largest mixed use sustainable community. Was designed to create a thriving community in which ordinary people could enjoy a high quality life while living with their fair share of the Earth’s resources cutting down their carbon-footprint.

About 100 homes, also have offices and workspaces. 0 carbon strategy. Low energy appliances, low energy light bulbs. Supply the remaining energy from renewables photovoltaic panels, supply about 16% of electricity. Have an on site combined heat and power plant. Using all the tree surgery waste to supply electricity. Waste heat is used to heat hot water. Wind driven ventilation system 56% cut in carbon emissions. Possible to live a nicer life and people like the sense of community and quality of life. 

People move to BedZED with typical life styles, the holistic design works on three levels:

Holistic:characterized by the belief that the parts of something are intimately interconnected and explicable only by reference to the whole, not just buildings but the life style.

• The design solves problems such as heating and water usage
• The design and services offer to help people make sustainable choices such as walking rather than driving, the location is set right near a bus stop, a train station and tram stop. Also have a city club scheme which takes 5 privately owned cars off the street.
• The community have created their own facilities and groups to improve quality of life and reduce their environmental impact. 

People have lived here since 2002. Energy efficient appliances alow them to reduce carbon footprint. UK's first and only bio-membrane reactor, takes all the effluent from our kitchens and bathrooms and cleans it so we can use it for flushing the toilet. Have secure bike storage. Have plants on the roof to help biodiversity, most homes have a garden. Key facts:

• Waste 60% recycled
• Community: Residents know 20 neighbours by name in average. Improves social lives
• Water: 58% reduction in water use 72 litres per person a day. Saves water supply
• Food: 86% of residents buy organic food help to reduce eco-footprint
• Energy: 81% reduction in energy use for heating, 45% reduction in electricity use