Cold War: Three Crises

Berlin within Eastern Bloc but was divided between Russian SOI and Trizonia 

Communist East German government very unpopular 

East Germans fled to West Berlin where there was greater freedom and wealth (capitalist) 

2.7 Million refugees between 1949 and 1961 many of whom were highly skilled. 

PROPOGANDA DISTASTER for Khrushchev – East Germans were 'voting with their feet’ for capitalism 

November 1958 Khrushchev declared East German ownership of all of Berlin 

Issued an ultimatum giving US troops 6 months to withdraw 

Purpose: to prevent East Germans fleeing and humiliate US 

Eisenhower conflicted: keen to keep West Berlin but didn’t want war so agreed to hold a summit to discuss Berlin’s future 

• Geneva May 1959: Foreign representatives from each power, no solution 
• Camp David September 1959: No solution, agreed for a further summit, Khrushchev to withdraw ultimatum 
• Paris May 1960: COMPLETE DISASTER, Russia had shot down a US spy plane over Russia and captured pilot – Eisenhower refused to apologise for spying, Khrushchev stormed out 
• Vienna June 1961: Kennedy now president, Khrushchev saw his inexperience as an opportunity to exploit him and put ultimatum back in place 

Kennedy refused to withdraw troops and prepared America for war, committed $3.2 billion extra in defence and built nuclear fallout shelters 

Stalemate had been reached – neither wanted to initiate war because nuclear retaliation would be devastating 

Khrushchev aware that USSR could not win nuclear war.  

1961 – USA had almost 20 times nuclear weapons, and they could reach USSR (Soviet missiles were only short range)  

Kennedy's refusal to retreat meant Khrushchev had to. 

Still had to solve refugee crisis: solution was a wall across Berlin 

Constructed 12th August 1961 by East German troops from barbed wire, fencing off all of West Berlin 

Gradually reinforced, became a heavily guarded wall 

Kennedy: "A war is a hell of a lot better than a war" 

Stopped East Germans fleeing so solved refugee crisis 

Khrushchev could avoid war whilst still appearing strong 

Powerful symbol of division – both of Germany and Europe 

Kennedy toured West Berlin in 1963 expressing solidarity –

West Berlin became a symbol of freedom

America was winning the arms race in the 40s and 50s,  

Official figures overestimated by both sides to appear powerful and deter the other 

USA concerned with speed the USSR were producing arms and their size – the Tsar Bomba detonated in 1961 was the most destructive bomb ever 

USSR concerned that US missiles were much closer to the USSR than it could place missiles to the US, so their missiles had to travel further and were less accurate 

The USA had B52 bombers which could more accurately target the USSR 

1957 – USSR launched Sputnik 1, the first man-made satellite and in 1960 landed first spacecraft on the moon 

Demonstrated sophistication of technology and made USA fear that same technology could be used to fire missiles at USA 

Khrushchev boasted that the Americans were 'sleeping under a red moon' - the space race was a huge propaganda success 

However they didn't have the money to mass produce this technology as arms – the boastthat the Soviets were 'producing missiles like sausages' was completely empty

Cuba traditionally an ally of USA – lots of land in Cuba owned by American businesses e.g.. Oil refineries and sugar 

1959 – Revolutionaries overthrew Batista's corrupt, pro-American government 

New leader Castro wanted more independence so took over American property in Cuba 

USA retaliated by banning import of Cuban sugar, threatening to bankrupt Cuban economy 

Cuba turned to USSR – Khrushchev delighted and pledged economic aid to help Cuba industrialise.

CIA had already attempted to assassinate Castro before Kennedy's presidency and were very concerned about the alliance between USSR and Cuba – a communist country so nearby was dangerous 

Persuaded Kennedy to launch invasion of Cuba to replace Castro with Batista  

Supposedly: 

It would look like a Cuban revolt with Cuban guerrilla fighters and disguised planes 

Castro's hold on Cuban government was weak 

Most Cubans would support a revolt 

Castro's government aware of the 'secret' plan and most Cubans did not want Batista back 

First strike (15th April) missed all targets and photos of planes leaked 

US involvement made public and second strike cancelled 

Cuban-exile army invaded 17th April, faced heavy air attacks and outnumbered by Castro's troops 

Forced to surrender as support from US planes came too little, too late  

Ended any chance of friendly relationship and Castro declared himself officially communist  

Soviet missiles placed on Cuban soil for 'protection'… win/win for USSR 

Soviet missiles in Cuba balanced US missiles in Turkey so he didn't have to spend money developing inter-continental ballistic missiles

Peak tension – nuclear war seemed likely  

On the 25th September 1962 Khrushchev sent 114 cargo ships to Cuba carrying nuclear warheads and long range missiles 

Plan to build nuclear bases in Cuba remained secret until discovered by American spy planes in mid-October, beginning the Thirteen Days

Kennedy's advisors were split in what they thought the best strategy was:

Hawks thought war was inevitable so USA should initiate it

Doves wanted caution and diplomatic strategies 

16th Oct - Kennedy informed of USSR plans to place missiles in Cuba 

Launches naval blockade around Cuba to prevent USSR supplying more missiles 

Makes speech declaring blockade and asking Khrushchev to recall cargo ships  

Khrushchev sends letter stating Soviet ships will break through blockade 

As Soviet ships reach blockade, Khrushchev states that USSR will launch nuclear weapons if USA goes to war 

Both sides prepare for war – Kennedy writes to Khrushchev asking him to withdraw 

Khrushchev responds saying he will withdraw missiles IF USA guarantees they will not invade Cuba 

Bit late for that  - Khrushchev receives intelligence that USA plan to invade in 24 hours 

A deal proposed  - USSR will withdraw missiles IF USA agree to NEVER invade Cuba AND withdraw missiles from Turkey  

American spy plane shot down over Russia – Hawks demand retaliation  

Chief advisor and brother Robert Kennedy (a dove) accepts Khrushchev's deal providing the withdrawal from Turkey is kept secret (USA can remain appearing powerful) 

28th Oct – Khrushchev agrees to secret deal 

Khrushchev's authority reduced -

Removal of American weapons from Turkey had remained secret, makingUSSR look weak and like a betrayal of Cuban allies 

Fragility of internationalpeace highlighted so superpowers agreed to introduce:

A 'hotline' (June 1963) for direct communication between President in Washington and Premier in Moscow 

The Limited Test Ban Treaty (August 1963) whereby both powers agreed to ban testing of all nuclear arms in space, the sea and over ground (underground sill permitted) 

Test Ban Treaty opened opportunities to discuss limiting weapon production and stockpiling 

Kennedy's June 1963 speech stated a focus on 'common interests' and began the policy of détente   

USSR caught up with USA in arms race – equal nuclear capability by 1965 

This created stability: 

The doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) meant both powers realised nuclear war would destroy both countries and should therefore be avoided at all costs 

France left NATO: 

In a nuclear war NATO members would be obliged to fight alongside USA. French President Charles de Gaulle did not want this burden on France so ended military alliance with America 

Began to develop own nuclear missiles in 1966 

Czechoslovakia a satellite state – but communism didn't benefit the people 

Run by secret police who brutally crushed political opposition 

Economy struggling  - led to declining standard of living  

These things meant Communist Party leader Antony Novotny very unpopular so his leadership was challenged 

5th January 1968 Alexander Dubcek became Communist Party Leader:

Committed communist, friendly with Leonid Brezhnev (Russian Premier since 1964) 

Aimed to create 'socialism with a human face' by getting rid of repressive aspects of communist regime

Dubcek's liberal reforms from April 1968 included: 

• Relaxation of press censorship
•  Legalisation of political opposition groups
•  More power to regional governments
•  More power to Czech parliament
•  'Market socialism' - introducing capitalist elements into Czech economy 

Welcomed by students, intellectuals, workers and younger communists 

Revitalised cultural, political, economic and social life  

However older communists were appalled, their shock shared by Brezhnev and his allies.

Brezhnev opposed the 'Prague Spring' but didn't want to ruin friendly relationship with Dubcek, who didn't want to leave Warsaw Pact or damage USSR 

However Soviet intelligence reports suggested that his liberal reforms would weaken Soviet control and ultimately break upthe Eastern Bloc 

Brezhnev tried to persuade Dubcek that allowing so much political opposition was too far 

When Dubcek did nothing to change this, Brezhnev ordered a full-scale soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, justified by the Brezhnev Doctrine: 

'The USSR have the right to invade any Eastern European country whose actions threaten the security of the Eastern Bloc' 

Throughout August 1968 Soviet media had portrayed Czechoslovakia as a huge threat to USSR 

Brezhnev argued that Dubcek's actions undermined Warsaw Pact and communist control

20th August 1968 Soviet tanks invaded Czechoslovakia 

Dubcek ordered that there would be no violent retaliation 

However there was lots of non-violent civil disobedience eg. Students blocking tanks holding anti-invasion banners 

Dubcek arrested and taken to Moscow, Brezhnev told him he had betrayed socialism 

Forced to sign Moscow Protocol, obliging Czechoslovakia to reintroduce censorship and remove political opposition

 America publicly condemned the invasion but offered no military support – tied up in Vietnam 

Western Europe followed America's lead  

However, Western European Communist Parties were outraged and declared themselves independent of Soviet Communist Party -  

Created rival forms of communism (Soviet communism and Eurocommunism), showing extent that the invasion led USSR to lose authority and support 

Yugoslavia and Romania distanced themselves from Soviet Union, forming an alliance with communist China (further dividing communism in Europe) 

East Germany and Poland supported the invasion – they too were concerned about Dubcek's liberalism as pro-Moscow leaders could lose jobs if reforms spread