Britain: Health and the people

The whole Health and people sllyabus covered, for AQA history.

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  • Created by: debs1549
  • Created on: 20-03-18 20:00

Medcine in the Middle ages influences

Cause of illness was unknown. Lack of scientific knowledge and medical traing was from Church - approved texts.

Blamed illness on supernatural beliefs such as God - punishment for not living a good life (sin), demons,astrology, Jews and zodiac charts.

Medical training:

  • University trained physicians - Church controlled so only Galen and Hippocrates, no dissection.
  • Barber-surgeons -  did amputations, dentistry and blood lettings.
  • Apothecaries - mixed herb remdies with herbs, roots and animal parts.
  • Healers or " Wise women" used natural remedies and mixed their own medcine were frowned apon by the church  because God sent illness so to treat it you had to repent so prayering was seen as the correct way.
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Hippocrates (460 -370 BC)

  • Taught that clinical observation was very important.
  • His theory of the 4 homours said that the body consistes of blood, phlegm, black bile and yellow bile. They had to be in balance for good health.
  • Many doctors followed his theory this was mainly due to the church accepting his ideas still infuencing untill the 1800s.
  • Started blood letting as this was used to get the 4 humours back in balance. Either by opening a vein or applying leeches.
  • The Hippocratic collection of books was used to train doctors for hundreds of years. They were very good a provided the first detailed account of symptoms and treatments.
  • Today, new doctors still take the Hippocratic oath this is about doctors being proffesional  and confidential.
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Galen ( AD130 - C.210)

  • His idea's dominated medicl training and treatment till the 1800s.
  • Built on the theory of the 4 Humours.
  • To learn about Human anatomy, Galen dissacted animals this prodeuced many errors such a believing humans had 2 jaw bones. This was because the Church banned human dissection and his errors were excepted as the Church also banned people questioning his work.
  • The Church liked his work because it supported the design theory that God desinged humans.
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Medieval medicine - Medical progress

Chrisanity hindered the progress as stopped dissections and didnt believe in getting people better as they believed in God wanted them to be ill so they were repenting. 

Medieval hostpitals

  • They small and a place for people to rest and recover.
  • Based with monasteries and there were non doctors just monks and nuns. They provide nursing care but relied on prayer and wards all had alters.
  • They were horrible places and often people to shared beds.

Islamic medicine

  • Was more advanced. They wrote medical encyclopaedis. Their ideas were spread by the crusadors. Avicenna wrote important medical text "Cannon of medicine" used intill the 1700s
  • Hostpitals treated pantients and also trained doctors.

Warfare helped improve surgeons skills improved skills such as amputations. New tools including the arrowcup. Improved ontiments and diagrams.

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Medieval public health

In towns:

  • Most towns had poor sanitation.
  • Some regulations were introduced due to epidemics such as the Black death.
  • Bath houses were avaible but were very expensive so the average person never went.
  • Regulation was not effective because the causes of disease was unkown.

In monasteries:

  • Monks were literate so they were more informed about public health.
  • Monks regarded fresh water supply as a priority when designing monastries.
  • Link between germ and illness was unkown which limeted the effects of their efforts.
  • Stored water in wells.
  • Used settling tanks.
  • Bathing was compulsory but only 4 baths per year.
  • Kitchen seperate from privies.
  • Planned water supply.
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Black death causes

Poeples ideas were dominated by the supernatural for what caused the black death:

  • God sent the Black Death as a punishment for sinful acts.
  • Astrology. Thye believed the alignment of the planets was the cause.
  • Minority groups were blamed. Jewws were blamed to have poisoning the water supply.
  • Miamsa - bad smells based on observation.
  • Inbalance of the 4 Humours

What caused it:

  • The Black Death germ came to Europe on fleas in 1348 from china. 
  • The fleas live on rats and rats got on ships. There were plenty of rats on streets as they were very unclean and cramped.People didn't was so were very dirty and had loads of fleas on them.
  • When a flea bit a human they got the Black Death. Boils size of apples would appear.
  • Spit blood, feel hot and dizzy and black spots under the skin. The pantient would then start to shake if boils burst pantient had a chance to surive but unluckly. Millions died and towns deserted.
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Black death treatment and prevention

Treatments were mainly based on superstition. They all didn't work as they cause of Black death was not know and methods not based on scientific knowledge. Some treatments were:

  • King and Bishops organised special services asking for God's forgiveness.
  • Ordinary people prayed to God.
  • Flaggents tried to avoid catching the Black death be travelling around whipping themselves and preaching to show the had repented for their sins but this actually spread the Black death more.
  • The belief in Miamsa caused the orders for streets to be cleaned.
  • Blood-letting was common as this was believed to balance the Humours.
  • Natural potions were advised. Smelling flowers were used to avoid bad smells.
  • Thay did quarantine this helped a lot.
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Black death consequences

Postive:

  • There was a shortage of workers so they could ask for more wages.
  • Enabled the poorer communites to have more freedom.
  • More space and land as population fell by 2.5 million from 4 million.

Negative:

  • Many villages were abonded for good.
  • Towns didn't function properly as officals were dead.
  • Foreingers blamed and attacked for causing it.
  • Graveyards were to full and no workers to build new ones so mass graves.
  • Many monks and preist died and no one was left to train new people.
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Renaissance new ideas that led to medical progress

  • The reformation challenged the religous authority this led indivuals to question important aspects of God such as role of God, science and dissection.
  • Invention of the microscope helped scientists to explain discoveries.
  • Invention of the printing press allowed ideas to spread quickly.
  • English people became wealthier due to the Black death so spent more on eduaction improved litracy rates inreasing the number of people accessing new ideas.
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Versalius (1514 - 64)

  • Dissected humans rather than animals. Gave him accurate knowledge of human anatomy proved Galen wrong in numerous ways.
  • Worked with skilled artists to ensure that his findings on anatomy were were accuratly documented this allowed otheres to learn from them.
  • Published book in 1543 called De Humani Corporis Fabrica with anatomical drawings.
  • His book proved the value of human dissection and the need to question the ancients works of Hippocrates and Galen teachings.
  • But didn't have any impact on teachings as Doctors still didn't know the cause of illnes or learn any treatments.
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Pare (1510-90)

  • Pare developed his ideas during his 20 years as a barber-surgeon, when he accompanied the French army on its campaigns.
  • In 1536 he discovered by chance (when the hot oil he used to cauterise the wounds of his patients ran out) that wounds healed better if they were treated with a  of yolks, turpentine and rose oil. This was a old Roman technique. It worked very well.
  • He used catgut ligatures to tie arteries during amputations instead of cauterising the wound. This method had a higher success rate. But there was a higher chance of getting a infection as wound was opened longer.
  • In 1575 he a book, which advocated changes to the way surgeons treated wounds and amputations.
  • His ideas became famous amongst British doctors who studied in Europe where his ideas were popular.
  • Impact on medicine was limited because only the very rich could afford him and only trained doctors knew his ideas.
  • He was not accepted in Britain as new ideas were met with scepticism
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Harvey (1578-1657)

  • Worked as a doctor in England and was a doctor for King James1 and King Charles 1.
  • Havery discovered and proved veins had valves and that blood was pumped around the body by the heart.
  • This challenged Galen as he taught that the liver produced blood. Havery disproved that and made people question the very populer treatment bleeding.
  • Havery published his works in 1628 in a book called "On the motion of the heart". After this many of his pantients left him as they no longer trusted him as they still believed in anceint ideas.
  • Havery's work was rejected by conservatives who supported Galen. They did not accepth the use of experiments.
  • Some people rejected work because they could not see capillaries it was 60 years before we could.
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Renaissance treatments and Hospitals

  • Limited by the lack of knowledge on germs
  • Improved travel and communication andvanced medicine.
  • New herbs and ideas were introduced
  • Lady Grace Mildmay quickly incorpated these new medicines.
  • Focused on specific parts of medicine.
  • Most people were still treated by familly memebers or local wise women. Herbal remedies.
  • Working class boought their treatments from quacks people who falsely claimed that  they help medical qualificatons.Quacks travelled making a lot of profit.
  • Some quacks gained knowledge through experience 

Hospitals - Most funded by rich people through donations. This reduced the Church's role.

  • Some treated patients as well as caring for them.
  • In 1741, Thomas Coran set up the Foundling Hospital. Demand was greater that places avaiable.
  • Some aspects from the Middle ages.e.g. Nurses were untrained and unskilled
  • Hospitalas started to care for those most vulnerable.
  • Stll likely to share beds and uncommon for surgery as lack of anaesthetic.
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Great plague 1665

  • Hit in april 1665. Plagues were pretty common in 1600s but this one was big. By the end of the summer 7000 people were dying every week. This was because the summer was very hot
  • Great plague because of the amount of people it killed. It was killed by the cold in the winter.

Still had some very traditional veiws on treatment- They tried strange things like Abracadbra written on a traingle and rubbing a plucked chicken on sores. Prayer - commonly used to ask God for forgiveness and Maimsa theory - bad air. Streets were cleaned and posies carried.

There was combination of traditional and new ideas. Such as Plague doctors they were hired by towns and wore special clothing that covered all parts of the body and prevented them catching the disease. They also carried amulets this showed they still believed int he supernatural.

Sceintific approach lead to the observation that death rates were higher in poorer, dirtier places. Watchmen prevented people from entering or leaving infected houses.To try and stop the spread. Authorties closed public spaces, killed cats and dogs and ordered people to pray.

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Training of surgeons and doctors

  • The establishment of Royal Colleges improved the traing and status of doctors.
  • 1600: Royal College of Physicians established.
  • 1700: Half of all practising physicians had served an apprenticeship.
  • 1800: Royal College of Surgeons established. It examined all surgeons practising within 7 miles of London.
  • 1811: Compulsory for all surgeins to attend a one year course in anatomy before they qualified as a surgeon.
  • 1813: Surgeons had to work for at least one year in a hospital to qualify.
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John Hunter (1728 - 93)

  • Hunter trained many British surgeons after 1768.
  • Hunter encourged human dissection to advance the understanding of the anatomy.
  • He told surgeons to trust the body's natural wound-healing process.
  • He taught the importance of observation and expermination.
  • Edward Jenner followed his principles when discovering the vaccination
  • Was and army surgeon and develped new ideas on treatment of gunshot wounds.
  • Father of morden medicine
  • Engaged the public in his work in order to garner public support.
  • He develed his skills using bodies from executions and grave robbers. This was very controversial as dissection was still frowned apon.
  • Arranged a massive collection af body parts into a museum.
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Small pox and innoculation

  • Small was greatly feared. It caused death, blindness and scaring.
  • There were frequent epidemics.
  • Symptoms -fever, headache, pus filled blister that disfigured people and could leave them blind
  • Treatments - bleeding, quack remedies, no known cure.
  • Between 30&60% of those who caught it died. 
  • Affected rich and poor Elizabeth 1 caught it. 
  • Killed 35,000 in 1796
  • Suffers shunned from fear of catching it.
  • Innoculation- Widely used with smallpox 
  • Involved giving a low dose(skin or scab) of smallpox to make a person immune from the disease.
  • In 1721, introduced to england by Lady Montagu came from China where it had been used for centuries. She had observed it in Turkeyinnoculated her kids Lots of her friends where doctors.
  • Average peasent got £17 a year. Innoculation cost £20 each.
  • Problems- some people died, others became carriers and spread it, costly- doctors exploited this.
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Edward Jenner and Vaccination.

  • He realised that if you got cowpox you wouldnt get smallpox.
  • Jenner injected a boy called James Phipps with the pus from a cowpox sores. It gave Jamed immunity from smallpox - this was th 1st vaccination.
  • He was unable to describe why the vaccination worked. But it worked so well the vaccination became compulsory.
  • Eduaction - Studied under surgeon John Hunter 
  • Role of the individual - Enguiry and attitude - he noted down his observations
  • Technogly - needles necassory to inject the vaccine. He published his ideas - printing press.
  • Goverment- £30,000 grant. Chance -  He was from rural Gloucestershire 
  • Faced opposition especially form other doctors
  • Innoculation doctors opposed it because of the threat to business.
  • Many people thought it was wrong to inject cowpox into humans 
  • Saw smallpox as a punishment from God. Prevention interfered with God's will
  • Anti-compulsory Vaccination League set up 1886. Argued right of parent to decide.
  • 1798: Jenner published findings. 1802: Government gave £10,000 to setup a clinic. 1840: Vaccination made free for all infants. 1853: Vaccination compulsory for children. 1871: Parents fined for not vaccinating their child. 1887: Parents given the right to decide.
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Pasteur ( 1822-1895 )

  • In 1861 Pasteur's Germ theory showed the link between 
  • Was a major breakthrough in microbiogly.
  • Using Jenner's work on vaccination, Pasteur experimented and developed new vaccinations      ( Chicken cholera and rabies).
  • He discovered using a swan-necked flask that germs causes disease. Before this doctors believed that disease caused bacteria not the other way round
  • One of the spin-offs of Pasteur work was the pasteurisation of milk, what prevented it from turnin sour by killing the germs and sealing it from the air.
  • Inspired Lister to succesfully use antiseptics to reduce infection.
  • Proved the air contains living organisms.
  • Luck - Cholera vaccine was luck a process of trial and error.
  • War - Rivalry France and Germany
  • Role of individual
  • Communcation -  heard of the work of Edward Jenner and Smallpox
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Robert Koch (1843-1910)

  • He was a German- war England Germany pushed both countries as they wanted to beat each other. Government gave more funding.
  • He found a way to strain bacteria, making them easier to identify under the microscope. This allowed the link between specific germs and disease.
  • Identified the causes of Britains major killers, including diptheria and typhoid. This mean that fewer people died.
  • This enabled more vaccinations.
  • His technigue alloed other scientists to do their own hunting.
  • He grow bacteria in a Petri dish. He identified bacteria that caused septicaemia, TB, cholera. 
  • Furthered the work of Pasteur.
  • Laid to rest the belief in Maimsa.
  • Technology - More improved microscope enabled him to see bacteria 
  • War- Rivaly
  • Communcation - Learnt of Pasteur.
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Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915)

  • He created the frst chemical treatment.
  • Usen scientific experiments to identify and treat disease.
  • In 1910, he created Slavarson 606. This chemical killed the germs causing Syphilis.
  • It only targeted the specific germ this was a major breakthrough in treatments.
  • He cobined a dye with other chemicals to find a cure.
  • He discovered there had previosly been a mistake the 606th compound they tied and dismissed was actually effective.
  • Communication -  Part of Koch's team.
  • Government funding 
  • Chance with Salvarson 606
  • Role of the indivual.
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Anaesthetics - Simpson (1811-1870)

  • Develpoed effective anaesthetic - Chloroform. 
  • He was the professor of Midwifery at Edinburgh Universty.
  • He used Ether but it wasnt very effective and it was explosive.
  • He discoverd Chloroform after experimenting with his friends in 1847.
  • He then used it during Childbirth and other operations.
  • He wrote other articles encouraging other doctors to use it by saying taht it allowed Surgeons to do longer and more complex operations.
  • It was not accepted untill Queen Victoria used it during childbirth in 1853 and later blessed the drug.
  • But Surgeons stopped using it by 1870 as it did not lower mortality rates because longer operations led to increased blood lose and deeper infections. Antiseptics should have come first. Hard to measure accurate dose.
  • Opposition to at the start because Surgeons believed that pantients should feel pain to help them appreciate the efforts on their behalf.
  • Clergy opposed because they believed God wanted to hear cries of people in pain.
  • Short term - Pantients no longer suffered from pain and died from shock.
  • Long term - Stopped using increased mortality rates - used cocaine as local anaesthetic.
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Antiseptic - Lister (1827-1912)

  • 1867 -  read the germ theory - experimented with Carbolic acid spray. Reduced mortality rates from 46% to 15% in 1870.
  • 1870 - Sterilise operating rooms and patients wounds with Carbolic acid.
  • 1871 - Invented machine to atomatically spray operating room with carbolic acid. 
  • 1877 - Trained other British surgeons in London.
  • 1880- Started to use sterilsed catgut for internal stiches.
  • Surgeons opposed listers methods because it made operating conditions unpleasent. Made the operations slower and other surgeons didnt have the same resualts as not as careful. 
  • Pain and infection was know fixed but bleeding remained unsolved.
  • Before 1867 Black period in medicine between anaesthetics and antiseptics as death rates increased.
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Surgical procedures and Aseptic surgery

  • Charles Chamberland,1881, Steam steriliser for medical instrumants.
  • Removed the need for carbolic acid, increased survival rates, Few surgeons used it due to time and cost.
  • Gustav Neubar,1886, Aseptic surgery all possible germs removed from the operating theatre.
  • Built on Listers ideas and was aided by Koch discovery of the bacterium which caused septicaemia. Reduced mortality rates and set a standard for others.
  • Berkeley Moyniham, 1890s, First Britain to wear gloves and change in to sterile garments.
  • Took along time for other surgeons to copy.
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Public health problems in the 1800s

  • Over crowding was a coomon problem with a large familly sharing one room and sharing the toliets and water pumbs with many families
  • Infectious diseases such as typhus and typhiod spread quickly.
  • The was no safety rules in the workplace. People worked in dangerous enviroments and become ill e.g chimney boys got scrotal cancer and coal miners got pneumoconiosis.
  • No regualtion of food or hygiene. Milk watered down and recoloured with chalk powder.
  • Public health reformers:
  • William Farr -  Introduced compulsory registration of births, marriages and deaths in 1837. Made the authorities more aware of health problems.
  • Thomas Southward Smith - Studied disease caused by Poverty. Work was used by Edwin Chadwick as evidence for the need to improve public health.
  • Edwin Chadwick - Secretary to the poor. Researched living conditions of the poor and published his findings in Report on the sanitary conditions of the labouring population. He linked poverty to poor living standerds and ill health.
  • Joseph Bazalgette- drew up plans for a new sewage system but the Goverment put it off due to the cost untill the Great stink in 1858 given 3 million and told to start straight away. Finished 1866 and cholera never returned to London.
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Cholera 1832-1866 and John Snow

  • 1832 Cholera brought to Britain by soldiers returing from Indai 
  • Spread throught the water supply. Killing more than 6,000 people in London alone.
  • Caused watery diarrhoea and sickness leading to rapid dehydration and death.
  • Thought to have been cause by miams.
  • Linked to poverty and poor public health and death force the Goverment and  middle class to act as in Manchester life expebticy was 17 for working class and 38 for middle.
  • This lead to the Goverment taxing the rich to pay for this. Highlighted living conditions of poor.
  • John Snow during the 1854 epidemic proved link between Cholera and dirty water.
  • He did house to house interviews and mapped the locations of each case.
  • He identified the pump these people used it was the broad street pump.
  • He removed the handle forcing people to go else where. The outbreak ended.
  • Further exploration showed that the lining of a nearby cesspit had cracked. Its contents leaked into the drinking water.
  • This was before Pasteur published Germ theory.
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Goverment and public health acts

  • In the early 1800s the govermnt followed a policy of laissez-faire
  • Attitudes slowly changed by a combination of growing evidence of health problems, cholera epidemics, the Great stink of 1858 and the work of individuals.
  • Public health laws started to be intoduced:
  • 1848- Public health act - Voluntary. Allowed councils to raise money to improve the conditions of their town. Very few opted to use this power.
  • 1864 - Factory act - Unhealthy conditions in factories became illegal.
  • 1866 - Sanitary act - Local authorities became responsible for sewer, water and street cleaning.
  • 1875 - Food and drug act - Regulated food and medicine.
  • 1875 - Public health act - Compulsory. It forced local councils to provide clean water and appoint medical officers of health and sanitary inspectors.
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Flemming, Penicillin and the pharmaceutical indust

  • 1880s: Joseph Lister used Penicillin to treat infected wound. He did not continue to use it or leave any record of his works with it.
  • 1928: Alexander Flemming rediscoverd the properties of penicillin. He published his findings but took no further action as no one was interested.
  • This was by Chance he went on holiday and left several plates out on his return he noticed a large blob of mould on one and around it the germs had been killed.
  • 1937: Florey and Chain researched penicillion after reading Fleming's article.
  • 1940: Proved Penicillins potential on mice. Recieved £25 in funding by Goverment.
  • 1941: Penicillins 1st test on a human Albert Alexander. He had a nasty infection and it began cleared up when they injected with penicillin but they ran out and he died. Proved it worked.
  • 1942: Due to ww2 the US and British goverments funded the mass production of Penicillin.
  • By 1944 Penicillin was avaible to treat all wounded soliders on D-day.
  • Today: Penicillin is a common form of treatment saving many lives. Some germs resistant.
  • Pharmaceutical industry developed quickly after 1945 and became important and wealthy.
  • A range of life saving drugs have been produced by private companies.
  • Regulation of drug companies have ensured full testing following Thalidome which had harmfull side effects.
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New diseases and treatments

  • New diseases - Spanish Flu - Started 1918 killed 50 million. Killed more than any other outbreak in History. Killed within hours. Skin turned blue and fluid filled the lungs causing sufication. Hit Central powers before allied helping the allied win the war. 
  • Treatments included quarantines, masks and shut public places. People were advised to not shake hands and stay indoors.
  • Aids - Starts with HIV virus. No cure but effective drug treatment. It weakens the immune system. Treatments included Antiretrovical medication and combination to stop resistance.
  • Alternative treatments - Homeopathy - Uses substances diluted with water to stimulate the bodies natural healing powers. No recogonised by NICE which states it should never be used.
  • Acupuncture - involves stimulating nerves using needles. Widely used. NICE only recommends for chronic tension-type headaches and migraines.
  • Intrests have grown in altenative treatment following concerns about negative side effects of drugs.
  • Fierce debates about the benefits of alternative medicines. The British Medical Association has refferred to homeopathy as "Witchcraft".
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Impact of WW1 and WW2 and Modern surgery methods.

  • WW1 - Mobile X-ray machine everyone with neck or head injury x-rayed.
  • Blood transfusion saved lives and discovered that donor blood groups had to match recievers.
  • 1921: British Red Cross created the 1st blood bank
  • 1938: British goverment established the Army Blood Supply Depot. The system still exists.
  • Prosthetics - Moveable parts, collarbration surgeon and prosthetic maker, made them from an art to mass production.
  • Facial reconstruction - Harold Giles developed new techniques for treating facial injuries and made a hostpital for reconstruction surgery used the tube pedicle
  • Fighting infection -  Amroth wright removed damaged flesh allowed fresh air to heal. Major killer as fighting on farmland. Glass vials for stitching, Trench foot treated with whale oil.
  • WW2- Cataract surgery, Sir Harold Ridley discovered that perplex splinters were not rejected by the eye.
  • Skin grafts - Sir Archibald Mcindoe improved treatment for burn injuries used tube pedicle and worked to improve mental health with Guinea pig club and encourged to go out and be proud.
  • Modern surgery methods - Laser surgery and Keyhole surgery making operations quicker and reducing healing time. Radiation therapy uses ionizing radiation to kill cancer cells. 1961 1st pacemaker. MRI scans allow surgeons to see inside the body.
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Booth, Rowntree, Boer war and Liberal Social Refor

  • 1899: Charles Booth found that 35% of Londoners lived in Poverty.
  • 1899: Many Boer war volunters were found unfit to fight due to bad diet and illness. Some towns up tp 90% found unfit.
  • 1901: Seebohm Rowntree disocovered over hals of York's working class lived in poverty.
  • 1913: Maud Pember's Round about a pound a week higlighted how hard it was to surivive on £1 a week a a average labourer's wage.
  • Liberal Goverement introduced social reforms.
  • 1906 - Eduacation act - Free school meals.
  • 1908 - Old Age Pensions Act - People over 70 recieve 5 shillings (25p) a week, 7 shillings  and 6 pence (37.5p)  for a married couple.
  • 1909 - Housing and Town planning act - Illegal to build bact-to-back houses.
  • 1909 - Labour Exchanges Act - Help unemployed people find work.
  • 1911 - National Insurance Act -Introduced a scheme for the sick and unemployment pay.
  • Impact of WW1 and WW2 - People shocked by Evacues health, Bad teeth and fleas.
  • Blitz - 32,000 civilans killed, Goverment built hostpitals to treat civilans employed more nurses and docters. Labour party leader became prime minister.
  • Raised expectations after sacrifice and loss of war.
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Creation and development of the NHS

  • In 1942 the Beveridge report set a proposals for welfare changes after WW2 
  • The labour party health minster Bervan was from a working class miners familly in wales. He was the supported of the NHS and created it.
  • The NHS was a central feature. It aimed to provide free healthcare "from cradle to grave".
  • In 1948 the NHS created. The Health providers were brought together to provide a free service.
  • The BMA reported that only 10% of doctors supported the NHS this was because doctors wanted to keep status, didnt want Goverment control. didnt want to lose money, Bervan depicted as a dictor but secured the support of Parliemant.
  • The imporved welfare system included a comprehensive system of benifits paid through taxation and worker's contribution. The NHS transformed the health of ordinary people.
  • Government tackled other public health issues- Bad air pollution in 1952 meant they introduced 2 clean air acts in 1956/1968 to encourage people to use gas/electricity rather than coal.
  • During the 1960s they ordered slums to be cleared. councils built modern homes with heating and bathrooms. Often in tower blocks.
  • Government established new towns to help solve problem of overcrowding. Milton Keynes.
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Issues of healthcare in 21st Century.

  • Pressures on NHS have increased due to the ageing population.
  • Government spending reviews have led to a shortage and removal of some drugs and treatments.
  • The goverment has focused on prevention:
  • Eduaction of healthy eating - five a day
  • Compulsory vaccination - Polio
  • Screening for common cancers
  • Presciption and denatl charges were introduced in the 1950s. Bervan resigned over this.
  • People exploited the sevice intially
  • Cost continued to escalete 
  • Revealed conditions which had gone untreated for years - Glasses - 6 month waiting list
  • Infaltion goes up by 4% a year thr government has increased NHS spending by 1% since 2010 leaving the service in a crisis with underfunding.
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