Stress

Acute Stress:

• Sympathomedullary pathway.
• The hypothalamus activates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
• This stimulates the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline and noradrenaline.
• This causes both heart rate and blood pressure to rise.
• This is also known as the fight or flight response.

Chronic Stress:

• Pituitary-adrenal system.
• The hypothalamus activates the pituitary gland to secrete ACTH hormone.
• This stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol.
• This suppresses the immune system and facilitates the conversion of fat and protein into energy.

• Blood pressure and heart rate increase to get blood quickly to areas of the body where it's needed for activity.
• Digestion decreases so that blood can be directed to the brain and muscles.
• Muscles become more tense so that the body is physically responsive.
• Perspiration increases os that the body can cool down and burn more energy.
• Breathing rate increases so that more oxygen can be sent to the muscles.

Kiecolt-Glaser et al (1995):

• Blood smaples taken from medical sutdents one month before exams and during exams.
• T cell activity was measured in the blood samples.
• Questionnaires were given to the students to assess psychological variables, such as traumatic events and loneliness.
• T cell activity was reduced in the sample taken during exams and in those experiencing psychological variables.
• This proves that exam stress and psychologicl variables effect the immune system.

Cohen et al (1993):

• Got participants to fill out a questionnaire that measured their stress index.
• Participants were then exposed to a cold virus.
• Participants with a high stress index were more likely to develop the cold and took longer to recover from it than those with a low stress index.
• This proves that high stress levels do have an affect on the immune system.

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS):

• Holmes and Rahe.
  • Made a list of 43 common life events. 
  • Had people rate how stressful each one was.
  • Ranked events from most stressful to least stressful.
• Problems with the SRRS:
  • Does not seperate +ve and -ve life events.
    • Weddings can be stressful but have a positive outcome.
    • Death of a spouse is also very stressful but has a negative outcome.
  • Daily hassles are not considered.

Rahe et al (1970):

• 2500 American sailors took the SRRS to asses the number of life events that occured over the last six months.
• Detailed records of the sailor's health were documented over their next six months of duty.
• The SRRS scores were correlated with illness records.
• Positive correlation of +0.118.
• Participants that were experiencing life changes had a increased change of getting ill.
• However, the correlation is small, so life events must only be one factor that is causing the sailors to become ill.
• Can't assume a casual relationship.
• Can't generalise the results - not representative of the population.

Gervais:

• Nurses kept diaries recording hassles and uplifts for one month.
• Hassles - increase job strain and decrease job performance.
• Uplifts - increase job performance.

Bouteyre:

• Relationship between daily hassles and mental health.
• Studied the transition from school to university.
• Students completed a hassles questionnaire and the Beck Depression Inventory.
• 41% of the students suffered depressive symptoms.
• +ve correlation between hassles scale and depressive symptoms.

Kanner et al (1981):

• 100 adults asked to complete hassles questionnaire each month.
• Asked to rate each hassle to show how severe it has been for them.
• Repeated for 9 months.

• Those with high scores were more likely to have physical and psychological health problems.
• Scores on an uplift scale were negatively correlated to health.
  • Uplifts may reduce stress or protect us from it.

• Daily hassles are positively correlated to stress and health, with a stronger correlation than that found with the SRRS.
• Uplifts were negatively correlated with stress.

• Difficult to establish a cause or effect relationship between the variables.
• Questionnaires meant that the participants were unable to explain why they found a situation stressful.
• Rely's on P's to be honest and for their recall to be accurate.
  • May not want to admit finding something stressful.
• People may measure stress differently.

Stress in workplace caused by:

• Relationships at work.
  • Might feel undervalued.
• Work pressures.
  • Having a large workload with strict deadlines.
  • Johansson et al (1978).
• The physical environment.
  • Noisy, overcrowded, temperature.
  • Health risks, i.e. factory workers.
  • Unsociable hours.
• Stresses linked to our role.
  • Job security.
• Lack of control.
  • May not have much influence over the type and amount of work we do,
  • " --------------------------------------" where we work.
  • " --------------------------------------" when we work.
  • Marmot et al (1997).

Marmot et al (1997):

• 7000 civil service employees working in London.
• Information obtained about their grade of employment, how much control they felt the had, how much support they felt they had, etc.
• Medical histories followed up 5 years later.

• P's on lower employment grades who felt less control and support over their work were found to be more likely to have cardiovascular disorders.
• P's on the lowest grade of employment were four times more likely to die of a heart attack than those on the highest grade.

• Lack of control can influence work stress and the development of illness.

• Only looked at 'white collar' workers - results can't be generalised to over jobs.
• Other factors, e.g. smoking and diet, may have had a part in the development of illness.
• Cause or effect relationship?
• Questionnaires may allow P's to be more honest if anonymous but they may not want to admit some information incase it puts their job at risk.

Johansson et al (1978):

• Participants consisted of:
  • 14 'finishers' in a Swedish sawmill - high-risk job, repetitive, isolated, high pressure.
  • 10 cleaners (control group) - low-risk job, social, varied work.
• Adrenaline/noradrenalin were measured in the participant's urine on work days and rest days.
• Record kept of stress-related illnes and absenteeism.

• Finishers secreted more hormones on workdays than the cleaners.
• Finishers had higher stress-related illness days and absenteeism.

• Higher work pressure and lack of social contact can cause stress and illness.

• Field experiment - high ecological validity.
• Doesn't take personality factors into account - some individuals may be more prone to stress.

Type A Personality:

• Time pressure:
  • Working against the clock.
  • Doing several things at once.
  • Irritation and imatience with others.
  • Unhappy doing nothing.
• Competitive:
  • Always plays to win at games and at work.
  • Achievement measured as material productivity.
• Anger:
  • Self-critical.
  • Hostile to the outside world.
  • Anger often directed inwards.

Friedman and Rosenman (1974):

• 3200 Californian men aged 39-59.
• Structured interview was carried out and the men were categorised into Type A, Type X and Type B personalities.
• Sample was followed for 8.5 years, assessing their lifestyle and health.

• 70% of the 257 men that developed coronary heart disease (CHD) were Type A personalities.
• Linked to lifestyle factors - smoking, obesity, etc...

• Type A behaviour increases the chances of CHD.

• Programs to reduce Type A behaviour should help reduce their chances of developing CHD.
• Andocentric data; results only apply to men and can't be generalised to women.
• Ethnocentric data; resuts only apply to Californian men and ignore other classes and cultures.
• Rather simplistic, as it only studies three personality types.
• Cause or effect relationship?
  • Did those characteristics cause the stress or did the stress cause the person to develop those characteristics?

Hardy Personality:

• High level of commitment.
  
  • They will work hard at relationships, jobs, etc.
• View change positively, seeing it as an opportunity for challenge.
  • They see life's obstacles as challenges to overcome.
• They have a strong feeling of control over their life and what happes to them.
  • Known as having internal locus of control and are more likely exhibit independent behaviour.

Non-Hardy Personality:

• View life experiences in a negative way and feel that they're unable to cope with situations.
• They feel like external agencies have control over what happens to them and that it isn't worth trying to become more powerful.
• They give up easily and don't see any value in trying to change what's happening around them.

Hardiness Training:

• Focusing - taught to recognise the sources of stress in their lives and physiological signs of stress (heart rate).
• Reliving stress encounters - encouraged to analyse how they have responded to stressful encounters in the past and whether they were effective or not.
• Self-improvement - these insights can be used to move forward and learn new techniques.

Kobasa et al (1985):

• Studied hardy personality in male white-collar workers.
• People with high scores on hardiness are less likely to suffer from stress-related illness.
• Androcentric; findings cannot be generalised to women.
• Results can't be generalised to different classes - only white-collar workers.
• Components of personality have never really been clearly defined.
  • Control may be an important part of commitment and challenge but Kobasa is viewing it seperately.
    • Looking at control as a protection against stress rather than a 'full personality'.

Drugs:

• Aim is to target the stress response iteself.
• They slow down the activity of the central nervous system (CNS).
  • E.g. Benzodiazepines (BZs) - valium.
  • Has a direct effect on the brain.
  • Increases the body's reaction to neurotransmitter GABA.
    • GABA is the body's own natural anxiety-relieving chemical.
    • Slows down the activity of neurones and makes us feel relaxed.

• They reduce the activity of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS).
  • SNS increases heart rate, blood pressure and cortisol levels.
    • High cortisol levels can make our immune system weak and cause heart disease.
  • E.g. Beta-blockers - librium.
    • Directly reduces activity of SNS pathways.

Drugs Evaluation:

Speed and effectiveness - Quick at reducing dangerous symptoms, i.e. high blood pressure.

Availability - Relatively easy to prescribe and use.

Dependancy - People can get addicted easily and begin to rely on drugs.

Only targets symptoms - Only treats symptoms and only when drugs are being taken.

Side effects - dizziness, blurred vision; withdrawl symptoms: increased anxiety, seizures, tremors and headaches.

Biofeedback:

• Measured via electrodes on the skin leading to a hand-held monitor.
• Gives people information about internal physical processes e.g. muscle tension.
• Gives people more control over these internal processes and the ability to alter them.
• Training takes place in a non-stressful environment, which the person is then encouraged to use in real-life situations.

• Person is attached to the machine that monitors and gives feedback on internal physical processes, such as heart rate, blood pressure or muscle tension.
• Taught how to control these symptoms.
  • Muscle relaxation - muscles are tensed and relaxed until the whole body is relaxed. This way people notice when their body is becoming tense.
  • Meditation.
  • Breathing control exercises.
• Feeling of relaxation acts like a reward and encourages the person to repeat this as an involuntary activity.
• The person learns to use these techniques in real-life situations.

Biofeedback Evaluation:

• Effective.
  • Attanasio et al (1985) - found that it helped teenagers and children with gain control over the symptoms of a migraine headache.
    • They also showed an increase in enthusiasm and a more positive attitude.
  • Has more long-lasting benefits.
• No side effects.
  • Only relaxation.
• Voluntary; not invasive.

• Role of relaxation.
  • Often no more effective than relaxation alone.
• Expensive equipment and time consuming.
  • Equipment isn't needed, so can be an unnecessary expense.
• Motivation and commitment is needed in order to make the treatment successful..

Stress Inoculation:

• Meichenbaum (1993).
• Injects you with stress and then teaches you coping mechanisms.
• Gets the person used to being under stress/ more resilient with stress.

• Conceptualisation - identify fears and concerns with the help of a therapist.
• Skill training and rehearsal - train to develop skills like positive thinking and relaxation in order to improve self-confidence.
• Real-life application - client uses training in real-life situations; contact is kept with therapist.

Evaluation:

• Targets source of stress rather than the symptoms.
• Combines both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping techniques.
• Effective - long-lasting.
• Client has to be determind and willing to commit to the technique.

Hardiness Training:

Kobasa proposes three ways in which hardiness can be increased:

• Focusing - learn to recognise signs of stress.
• Reliving stressful encounters - analyse stressful situations, so you can understand possible coping strategies.
• Self-improvement - take on challenges that can be coped with and build confidence; control is gained.

• Participants in Kobasa's study only included white, middle class businessmen.
  • Androcentric; results cannot be applied to women.
  • Ethnocentric; results cannot be applied to other cultures or classes.
• Can be easily applied to real life situations.
  • Olympic swimmers have used this technique in order to control aspects of their lives that could disrupt their training.