Approaches in Psychology
- Created by: georgiaw19
- Created on: 22-03-17 12:20
Origins of psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those that affect behaviour.
Wilhelm Wundt opened the first experimental psychology lab in Germany in 1879. He used introspection. Introspection was the first attempt at studying the mind. It works by breaking up conscious thought into thoughts, images and sensations.
He and his co-workers used techniques which would be described as scientific today. They done introspections in controlled conditions using the same stimulus each time and they used standardised instructions which allowed the introspections to be repeated.
This shows us how Wundt had an influence on modern scientific psychology, and moved away from its more philosophical roots.
Approaches in psychology
Behaviourism: classical conditioning (Pavlov's dogs), operant conditioning (Skinner's rats), observable beaviour.
Social learning theory: Bandura, attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, looks at both behaviour and cognitive factors.
Cognitive approach: theoretical and computer models, schema, focuses on influence of mental processes i.e. thoughts.
Biological approach: biological structures affect behaviour such as genes and the nervous system, twin and family studies, evolution.
Psychodynamic approach: Freud, how forces of the mind control behaviour, the unconscious, id, ego, superego.
Humanistic approach: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, free will, self-actualisation.
Behaviourism
The behaviourist approach focuses on studying observable behaviour. Behaviourists developed two important forms of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning: This is learning through association such as Pavlov's dog study. He taught his dogs how to salivate on hearing a bell after he repeatedly presented the bell when the dogs were given food. The situation worked like this: food (unconditioned stimulus) - salivation (unconditioned response), bell (neutral stimulus) - no salivation (no response), bell + food - salivation (unconditioned response), bell - salivation (conditioned response)
Operant conditioning: This is learning through consequences. There are three types of consequences to behaviour: positive reinforcement which is a reward for certain behaviour, negative reinforcement which is avoiding a situation that has a negative consequence such as handing in late homework and punishment which is a consequence of a bad behaviour such as being shouted at for late homework.
Skinner's research was done on rats to show how operant conditioning works. The rats were in a box and they had to activate a lever in order to get food. They soon learned this procedure as it was positive reinforcement for their action.
Evaluation of behaviourism
- Scientific credibility - uses methods to measure observable behaviour within controlled lab settings, it creates objective research that can be replicated.
- Real-life application - operant conditioning - prisons and psychiatric wards where patients recieve tokens for good behaviour, Supernanny uses it where she creates rewards systems. Classical conditioning has been used in the treatment of phobias (two-process model which went on to treat phobias).
- Biological factors - doesn't take into account biological factors into behaviour such as levels of dopamine or genetic factors.
- Mechanist view of behaviour - sees people as passive (obedient) in their learning whereas other approaches actually recognise the importance of mental events in learning.
- Deterministic - it suggests that every person will behave in a certain way based on past experiences that have been conditioned, however this isn't true as some people follow conditioing and others don't (some people get a warning once then never again, while others repeatedly get them and don't care about the consquence).
Social learning theory
Bandura agreed with behaviourists that we learn through experience but believed there more to it. Social learning theory which suggests people learn directly (operant and classical conditioning) and indirectly (observing the behaviours of other people). There are some key terms and concepts associated with social learning theory:
Imitation: this is when someone copies the behaviour of someone else. Identification: people are more likely to imitate behaviour of someone they identify with, such as a boy is more likely to imitate another male's behaviours, these people may be role models. Modelling: imitating the behaviour of a role model. Vicarious reinforcement: in conditioning we looked at positive and negative reinforcement. vicarious reinforcement is when someone learns by observing other people's behaviour.
The mediational processes are attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. These are what makes SLT as they break up the stimulus to response idea of the behaviourist apporach. Attention is the extent to which the observer notices certain behaviours. Retention is how well the behaviour is remembered. Reproduction is the ability the observer has to actually perform the behaviour. Motivation is the will to perform the behaviour which is heavily determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.
Bobo doll experiment
Bandura in 1961 carried out the Bobo doll experiment. This is where they tested the SLT in looking at aggression.
Method: They put children aged between 3-5 years in a room with an adult and a Bobo doll. The adult was either acting neutrally towards the doll or acting aggressive by punching, hitting and shouting at the doll. The child was the given time alone with the doll to see what they would do.
Findings: The children that saw the adult being aggressive were most aggressive towards the Bobo doll themselves. The group that saw the adult acting neutrally towards the doll did the same. When the child was the same sex as the adult they had observed, they found they were more likely to imitate the behaviour.
This experiment was strong evidence for the idea of the SLT.
Evaluation of the social learning theory
- Importance of ognitive factors - social learning theory does recognise the importance of cognitive factors, through the role of mediational processes. This makes it a more comprehensive explanation for human behaviour.
- Reliance on lab studies - many of Bandura's idesa were developed through observation of young children's behaviour in lab settings. There is the idea that the children may have figured out what was going on or they felt they were expected to be violent (demand characteristics), so did so due to the nature of the experiment.
- Underestimates the influence of biological factors - the Bobo doll experiment found boys were more aggresive than girls which could be explained by hormone levels. The influence of biological factors is left out of the theory which makes it a weaker theory.
- Real-life application - can be used to explain why there are cultural differences as children learn from personal experiences as well as experiences around them. Helps people understand gender roles in society as they learn from what they see.
- Less deterministic than the behaviourist approach - it takes free will into account.
Cognitive approach
This approach focuses on how our mental processes such as thoughts, perception and attention, affect our behaviour. The cognitive approach argues that the mental processes are very important and should be studied, however it is difficult to study these mental processes. It is done by studying them indirectly by psychologists making inferences (conclusions made about the way mental processes operate with observed behaviour). There are different ways psychologists study the mental processes:
Theoretical and computer models: the information processing approach is an important theoretical model which suggests information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and revival. Computer models suggest that our brain is similar to a computer.
Schemas: cognitive processes can also be affected by beliefs and expectations which are referred to as schemas. These are packages of information gained through experience.
Cognitive neuroscience: this is scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. In the last 20 years, with the advances in brain imaging, scientists have been able to observe areas of the brain which have been useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders.
Evaluation of the cognitive approach
- Credible scientific basis - due to the use of lab experiments which produce reliable, objective data and cognitive neuroscience
- Machine reductionism - doesn't take into account human emotion and how it affects our ability to process information, some research has shown that anxiety can affect human memory
- Lacks external validity - a lot of the research uses artificial stimuli that might not represent everyday experiences
- Real-life application - artificial intelligence and thinking machines (robots)
- Less deterministic - it recognises the importance of our free will
Biological approach
The biological approach suggests that biological structures are only responsible for explaining behaviour. Those who believe this approach say that human behaviour has a psychological cause which can be genetically and environmentally altered.
A genotype is a person's genetic make-up such as blue eyes recessive and brown eyes dominant. Phenotype is the way the genes are expressed physically such as having brown eyes. The expression of a genotype can be influence by environmental factors such as dyeing hair a different colour.
Neurochemistry is relating to the chemicals in the brain which regulate psychological functioning.
Evolution is changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.
Twin, family and adoption studies
Twin studies are some of the most important studies done for the biological approach due to the genetic similarities twins have.
A zygote is a fertilised egg. Monozygotic twins (MZ) are identical. They came from one fertilised cell that split to form two seperate embryos. Dizygotic twins (DZ) are non-identical. They came from two seperate eggs that were fertilised by different sperm cells. Concordance rate is the extent to which two people share similar traits and characteristics. It is expected that identical twins should always have a 100% concordance rate but this is not true.
Family studies can help but are limited. It is difficult to know if a trait or characteristic is present in both parent and child because it was genetically passed down or if it's because they were brought up in the same environment.
Adoption studies help as they can show us the similarities between a child and their adoptive and biological parents. Adoption studies before have shown that intelligence is genetically determined.
Psychodynamic approach
This is a perspective that describes the forces (mostly unconscious) on our mind that direct behaviour and experience, created by Freud. It says most of our mind is the unconscious mind, and the conscious mind is the 'tip of the iceberg'. The unconscious mind is the part we are unaware of, but directs much of our behaviour. It contains biological drives and instincts as well as disturbing memories we may have repressed. The preconscious mind is just before our conscious; this includes thoughts and ideas we may become aware of during dreams or 'slips of the tongue'. Freud says the personality is a 'tripartite', composed of 3 parts:
- The id is the selfish part of personality. It is the only part present at birth and operates on the pleasure principle.
- The ego is reasonable and reduces conflict/mediates between id and superego. It works by using the defence mechanisms: repression (forcing distressing memory out of mind), denial (refusing to acknowledge something that happened) or displacement (moving feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a subsitute target). Develops around age 2.
- The superego is our internalised sense of right and wrong. It is based on the morality principle and represents the moral standards of the child's same-sex parent and punishes ego for wrongdoing.
Freud's psychosexual stages
- Oral (0-1 years): Focus of pleasure is mouth, mother’s breast is object of desire. Consequence of unresolved conflict: Oral fixation - smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical.
- Anal (1-3 years): Focus of pleasure is anus. Child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces. Consequence of unresolved conflict: Anal retentive - perfectionist, obsessive.
Anal expulsive - thoughtless, messy.
- Phallic (3-5 years): Focus of pleasure is genital area. Child experiences oedipus complex or electra complex. Oedipus complex is when the boy develops incestuous feelings towards mother and feelings of hatred towards father. Electra complex is when a girl desires their father and hates their mother. Consequence of unresolved conflict: Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual.
- Latency: Earlier conflicts are repressed.
- Genital: Sexual desires become conscious alongside onset of puberty. Consequence of unresolved conflict: Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
Evaluation of psychodynamic approach
- Influencial - while it proposes a lot of weird ideas, his theory has been a dominant force in psychology. It is used to explain personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender whilst also looking at the connection between relationships with parents as a child and later development.
- Lacks scientific precision - he used on case study to develop a lot of his ideas, and his findings were subjective. It is unlikely any other person would take those conclusions from the case study.
- Untestable concepts - a lot of Freud's concepts are focused on unconscious parts of the mind, such as the id and the oedipus complex, this makes them extremely difficult to test.
- Psychic determinism - Freud believed that everything relating to human behaviour had some sort of meaning. Even slips of the tongue had a deep meaning rather than being a mistake. This means the free will we have is actually seen as an illusion.
Humanistic approach
The humanistic approach is the only non-deterministic approach; it emerged in the 1950's, in the USA and was founded by Rogers and Maslow. It implies that all of our behaviour is determined by ourselves and is subjective rather than following general laws. However, this approach does recognise that there are external and internal influences but we are active agents who can determine our development.
Self-actualistation is the desire to be the best version of themselves they can be. It is the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. An individual needs to meet the four lower levels before they can achieve self-actualisation. There are psychological barriers which may stop an individual from reaching their full potential.
Rogers argued an individual must have congruence which is when their self-concept is equivalent to their ideal self. If this isn't the case they will be in a state of incongruence and self-actualisation won't be possible. Rogers developed client-centred therapy as a way of dealing with this. He helped people cope with problems they have in their everday life. He thought the issues with have with self-esteem can be linked to a lack of unconditional love in childhood. He thought, as a therapist, he should provide clients with unconditional positive regard they didn't recieve as children.
Evaluation of humanistic approach
- Not reductionist - this may increase validity as it considers meaning human behaviour
- Limited application - has been used for Maslows hierarchy of needs and Rogers counselling methods, but it isn't used for much more than that due to it lacking a sound evidence base.
- Positive approach - it is a much more positive approach than the psychodynamic approach, for example, which sees all people living unhappy lives.
- Untestable concepts - concepts such as self-actualisation and congruence are untestable concepts under experimental conditions.
- Cultural bias - the idea of a lot of individual freedom is true for individualist cultures, but collectivist cultures such as India emphasise the importance of being in a group. So this approach must be adapted for different cultures, and wouldn't apply in the same way across all cultures.
Evaluation of biological approach
- Scientific methods of investigation - uses highly scientific and precise methods such as fMRI's, EEG's, family and twin studies, drug trials. This means the approach is based on reliable data.
- Real life application - as we understand the biochemical processes in the brain more, it leads to developments in psychoactive drugs that treat things like depression. It helps improve the lives of people who suffer with certain conditions.
- Casual conclusions - this approach offers explanations for mental illness in terms of the action of neurotransmitters in the brain; which comes from evidence showing a drug reduces symptoms of mental disorder, so it's assumed that the neurochemical in the drug causes the disorder. This is like saying a lack of paracetomol causes a headache because paracetomol relieves symptoms of a headache.
- Determinist - sees behaviour as governed by biological processes in the brain rather than something we can control.
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