Approaches

Wundt- Introspection
Examining own thoughts in controlled environments. Present an image/ stimulus and asked to describe inner processes. Then compare

- Self report. No way to measure thoughts
- Aren't aware of all thoughts. Some unconcious

Scientific method:
Objective- researchers not under influence 
Systematic- carried out in an orderly way
Replicable- able to repeat with the same results

Behaviour is learnt through experience. 

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Food (UCS) - Salivate (UCR)
Bell (NS) - No Response
Food + Bell- Salivate (UCR)
Bell (CS)- Salivate (CR)

+ Research support.Pavlov Findings:
Any bell tone or pitch makes dog salivate
Bell and food have to be given together to have a response
Extinction occurs if not repeated
Spontaneous recovery- quick to remember after extinction

- Animals have different responses to humans. Humans have conciences, so complex

OPERANT CONDITIONING- learnt through consequences

Positive Reinforcement- reward, makes behaviour more likely

Negative Reinforcement- punishment, aversion so less likely.

+ Reserach. Skinner's Box
Rats and pigeons in a box. 
Lever released a food pellet (reward) positive reinforcement, so repeated behaviour.
Metal floor electric shocks (punishment) negative reinforcement, avoidance of the specific behaviour.

As a whole:
Classical
+ led to development of phobias
- Animals less complex than humans
Operant
+ Practical applications, pigeons releasing missiles with levers
- Thoughts not processed 

Bandura- originator of social learning theory

Modelling- person imitates another persons behaviour
Imitation- someone observes behaviour and repeats but not copies it
Identification- individual influences by someone else due to similar characteristics e.g gender
Vicarious reinforcement- person observes a model  recieving a reward, which increases likelihood of them repeating that behaviour.
Mediational processes- the time between observing behaviour and their response.

+ Research. Bandura BoBo doll experiment: 
1) 36 male and female participants- 4 years old. 
2) Split into two groups. Half saw aggressive behaviour (hitting and shouting abuse), others didn't 
3) Children put in a room seperately and behaviour observed. 

Found children who observed aggressive behaviour acted more aggressively and greater reaction if model was same gender

- Unethical- encouraging aggressive behaviour & not valid as BoBo dolls are used for aggression

Internal mental processes:

Selecting information (attention), problem solving (thinking) and retrieving info (memory).

Since thought processes cannot be studied they are studied indirectly and inferences made. 

Schemas:
A schema is a cognitive framework that helps organise information based on experience.
e.g in a restaurant (which cutlerly to use)
They 'fill in gaps' but can blur memory and cause stereotypes

+ Brewar and Treyans
30 university students, waited for around 30 seconds in an office. Then asked to recall objects. Most recalled usual objects and unexpected objects e.g skull. But schemas produces biases e.g pens.
+ Scientific
- Lacks ecological validity. Wouldn't be asked to do in real life.

Theoretical Models

• Simplified representations of mental processes e.g Multistore model memory. SR- STM-LTM

Role of Computer Models
Input  - Processes - Output
Input data into excel  - Computer processes - Computer produces spreadsheet
Both process info, have electrical signals
But computers dont have feelings and can only follow orders/ instructions

Cognitive neuroscience
Looks at biological basis to explain thought processes, specifically neurons.

Methods used to investigate:
PET= nuclear medicine used to observe metabolic processes in the body. Detects pairs of gamma rays indirectly by a tracer
fMRI= neuroimaging procedure to measure brain activity by changed in blood flow.

+ Research. Tulving found different areas of brain involve different areas using liquid gold. 

+ Cognitive approach is scientific, experimental research methods. But lacks mundane realism, taks produce artificial results.

- Models are too simplisitc, reduce complex thought processes down to simple processes e.g Multi-store model of memory.

- Comparing humans to computers suggests humans lack free will 

+ Research support. Tulving et al liquid gold found different thoughts made in different areas of brain.

+ Practical applications. Cognitive therapy 

Influence of GENES:
Hereditary= passed down from parents
Genotype= the genetic code for an individuals characteristics. 
Pheontype= the observable characteristics which reflect the genetic code. When the genotype interacts with the environment e.g nutrition affecting height. 
Monozygotic twins (MZ)= identical. Come from the same fertilised egg
Dizygotic twins (DZ)= same amount of genetic material as siblings. Two fertilised eggs.
Concordance rate= the presence of the same trait/ gene in both twins

If the MZ twins have higher likelihood of having a disorder than DZ twins,it's down to genetics
E.g Bipolar depression. MZ= 40% and DZ= 5-10%

EVOLUTION
1) genetic mutation causes a special characteristic e.g Aye-aye long fingers 
2) this allows them to survive for the environment and greater chance of reproduction. 
3) Genes passed onto offspring, therefore adapting to environment

Aggression and intelligents evolutionary for survival e.g hunting

Influence of BIOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
The Nervous System:
Central nervous system- consists of brain and spinal chord
Peripheral nervous system- sends and recieves information to CNS:

• Autonomic= involuntary movements. Sympathetic(fight/flight) Parasympathetic (returns)
• Somatic= voluntary muscle movements e.g picking up pen

The Endocrine System:
System releases hormones into the blood stream to produce a physiological response
Released from glands. Mainly Pituitary gland 'Master Gland' 
e.g Adrenaline released for fight or flight response. 

NEUROCHEMISTRY -Transmission of chemicals in brain affecting behaviour
Neurotransmitters= chemicals in the brain that relay impulses across synapses
Synaptic Transmission= electrical impulses reach the pre-synpatic neuron and cause it to release neurotransmitters to be released. They diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors of the post-synaptic neuron. This causes an impulse to fire along the neuron. 
Too little/ much causes mental illnesses e.g low serotonin causes depression

+ Scientific methods which are objective e.g biochemical levels

+ Practical applications e.g drugs for psychological problems such SSRI's for depression

- Explanations are too simplistic. Simplify complex behaviours, so reductionist.

- Danger of abuse of genetic explanation e.g genetic screening and modification

1) Freud believed origins of behaviour lie in the unconcious mind

2) Instincts/ drives motivate our behaviour

eros- life instincts e.g eating
thanatos- death instincts e.g aggression

3) Early childhood determines behaviour

Iceberg Model

Tip of the iceberg (above water)= concious mind

Below the water= unconcious mind

• Pre-concious- thoughts that are able to surface at any point. Memories are here.
• Unconcious- thoughts that never surface/ not easily e.g trauma

Structure of personality

Id (birth to 18months) - primitive part of personality, innate in order to recieve instant gratification

Ego (18m-3 years) - concious rational part of personality, ensuring the Id nor Superego dominate

Superego (3-6 years)- concience, feels guilt, influenced by parents good behaviour

Behaviour where id dominates: theft
Behaviour where superego dominates: giving money to charity

• Anxiety weakens the ego so the Id is more likely to dominate.
• Defence mechanisms are methods to unconciously reduce anxiety.

1) REPRESSION
An unpleasant memory is pushed into the unconcious mind, where it is inaccessible e.g phsyical  abuse as a child

2) DENIAL
Refusal to accept reality, so reducing anxiety e.g an alcoholic not accepting

3) DISPLACEMENT
Focusing a strong emotion onto another object/ person to reduce anxiety as it allows expression e.g angry at siblings for an argument with partner

Stages of personality (birth to adult):
Fixation= if conflict(frustration/overindulgence) a fixation on tht stage personality happens

• ORAL STAGE (0-18m) - pleasure from the mouth, biting and sucking
  Fixation occurs is weaned to early or late off mothers milk
  Orally aggressive= aggressive
  Orally passive= gullible & dependent on others
  More likely to **** thumb and chew on pens
• ANAL STAGE (18-36m)- pleasure from expelling or holding in faeces
  Anally explusive (keen)- generous
  Anally retentive (anxious about potty training)- organised
• PHALLIC STAGE (3-6 years) - focus on genitals
  Oedipus complex = boys. Sexual feelings for mother, father as rival, threatened (castration anxiety), befriends father to reduce anxiety so identification and internalisation
  Electra complex = girls. Blame mother for no penis, 'penis envy', tranferred to desire for father, then desire for baby, befriends mother and identification & internalisation.
  Problems as adult: homosexuality, 
• LATENT(6-11) & GENITAL STAGE (12+)-Sexual desires repressed & focus on genitals- adult

+ Case study support. Little Hans. 5 year old developed phobia of horses  (displaced fear of father). Horses have larger penis's so castration anxiety. Hans was facinated with his penis (Phallic stage). Suggesting stages.
- Confirmation bias, Freud was looking for certain behaviour
- Information provided by fathers observations so biased. Retrospective
- Case studies are specific

- Approach is androcentric - gender biased. Views of women during the time were less developed and Freud ignorant

- Lacks validity and reliability as hard to measure case studies so little empirical evidence

- Too deterministic. Suggests no control over behaviour

1) Every individual is unique

Study of measuring people as inique is called Idiographic 

2) Individuals have free-will (ability to choose what we do, in control)

The approach does acknowledge contraints e.g laws

3) People should be viewed holistically (as a whole)

e.g in therapy look at whole life course

4) Scientific method not appropriate 

Too objective as humans are subjective

FREE WILL
- control over behaviour
- hard to prove as subjective 
- a conclusion is that humans are in control for own behaviour so responsible for it. 

SELF ACTUALISATION
- peak state of existance anyone can obtain. True potential

Maslows Hiearchy of Needs:
(how to achieve self-actualisation)

• Physiological (basic needs e.g food, shelter)
• Safety (basic needs)
• Belonging (Psychological needs e.g friendship)
• Self-esteem (Psycholigical needs e.g confidence)
• Self-actualisation (Self-fulfillment needs e.g morality)

Have to achieve each stage to reach full potential

Rogers- Focus on the Self
3 selves:
1) The self concept = personal identity 'self image'
2) The idea self= self you wish to be
3) The real self = real self, who you actually are

CONGRUENCE (have to achieve to reach self-actualisation)
-This is where the self concept (self image), real-self and ideal self are similar.
-Hard to achieve
- Also need 'Unconditioned Positive regard' to achieve. This is when an individual is accepted unconditionally e.g by parent, partner

ROLE OF CONDITIONS OF WORTH
When people experience conditional positive regard (only being accepted/ loved in certain conditions) e.g parents only praise if good grades, they find it harder to achieve self-actualisation. Can also occur indirectly. 

Rogers developed Client-centred therapy, where therapist makes them feel comfortable so unconditoned positive regard, so more honest. Therapist ac as guides to help.

+ Maslows hierarchy linked to economic development. HAGERTY. Found a longitudinal study 88 countries, lower economic development only achieved lower level needs (basic needs e.g food). Higher economic countries showed self-actualisation. Support for hierarchy.

- Ideas hard to test scientifically, so lack empirical evidence

- Culture specific. Focuses on Individualist contries e.g Western not Collectivist which believe in working together

+ Research for Conditions of worth. HARTER. Found Teenagers who felt they had to get parents approval were more likely to develop depression. So can't achieve self-actualisation

FREE WILL (own choices) vs DETERMINISM (determined by internal&external factors)

Biological- deterministic as behaviour from biology e.g genes

Learning- deterministic, behaviour due to stimulus/ response

Cognitive- deterministic, but element of free-will as therapy changes thoughts

Psychodynamic- deterministic (unconcious mind no control)

Humanistic- free-will, behaviour is due to own decisions

NATURE (genetic make-up) vs NURTURE (external environemnt)

Biological- Core ideas are nature but acknowledgement of nurtue (phenotype)

Learning- Nurture, environment forms behaviour

Cognitive- Both. Nature for innate thought mechanisms, Nurture as environment may shape thoughts

Psychodynamic- Both

Humanistic- Both. Innate drive to self-actualise but environment affects (Nurture)

HOLISM (viewing as a whole) vs REDUCTIONISM (simple explanation)

Biological- Reductionism, efforts to explain behaviour as genetic, phsyiological, biochemical

Learning- Reductionism, scientific approach to isolates behaviour

Cognitive- Reductionism (experimental), carefully controlled to test one variable

Psychodynamic- Holism, doesn't use scientific measures and believes all of individuals behaviour should be taken into account

Humanistic- Holism, rejects scientific methods.

IDIOGRAPHIC (uniqueness) vs NOMOTHETIC (universal rules)

Biological- nomothetic, we share a common physiologoy and biochemistry

Learning- nomothetic, general laws in behaviour

Cognitive- nomothetic, understands people have different thoughts by all generalised

Psychopatholgy- both. Uniqueness of childhood (idiographic) but innate drives (nomothetic)

Humanistic- idiographic, focuses on uniqueness of individuals

SCIENTIFIC METHODS (objective & reliable) vs NON-SCIENTIFIC

Biological- scientific, measurments of biochemicals & scanning technologies e.g fMRI

Learning- observing behaviour (scientific) but cognitive not

Cognitive- scientific, well-controlled laboratory experiments

Psychodynamic- non-scientific, can't measure unconcious mind

Humanistic- non-scientific, doesn't believe in it

EXTRAPOLATION (animals research) vs NO EXTRAPOLATION

Biological- animal research widely used

Learning - animal research used e.g Skinners box for Operant conditioning

Cognitive- no animal research, can't measure animal thoughts

Psychodynamic- no animal research, can't measure unconcious mind of animals

Humanistic- no animal research, focuses on humans