Approaches

Wundt and introspection -

Wundt's lab - opened first ever psychology lab in Germany 1879; he wanted to document and describe the nature of human consciousness. Wundt and his co-workers recored their thoughts (introspection) and aimed to break them down into different parts (structuralism).

Controlled methods - All introspections recorded under strictly controlled conditions, and same standardised instructions were issued to all participants. This meant that the procedures could be replicated.

Rene Descartes - the mind and body are independent from eachother (cartesian dualism).; he said " I think therefore I am".

John Locke - proposed empiricism; all experience can be obtained through the senses; humans don't inherit knowledge or instincts. This forms the basis of the behaviourist approach.

Charles Darwin - the evolutionary theory; we adapt to our environment and it's survival of the fittest. Many human behaviours have evolved due to adaptation. This is an idea in the biological approach.

Watson and the early behavioursits - questioned the idea of introspection; it produced data that was subjective as it varied between people. Also, he proposed that the thought process can be observed and measured so it shouldn't be studied. This saw the behaviojurist approach being formed.

Scientific approach - Watson, and later, Skinner; focused on the scientific processes involved in learning, alongside controlled lab experiments. 

Behaviourism can be observed, usually through experimental methods.

Following the cognitive resolution the study of mental processes is now seen as legitimate and highly scientific.

The biological approach makes use of experimental data, technology advances such as the fMRI have been useful for studying this. 

Assumptions - only interested in studying observable behaviour, and they relied on lab experiements. Behaviourists identified 2 important forms of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning - Pavlov's research - classical conditioning is learning through association. Food = unconditioned stimulus, salivation = unconditioned response. Bell = neutral stimulus, no salivation = no conditioned response. Bell + food = salivation, an unconditioned response. Bell = conditioned stimulus, salivation = conditioned response.

Operant conditioning - Skinner's research - learning is an active process, and there are three types of consequences of behaviour. Positive reinforcement: reward for behaviour, negative reinforcement: the avoidance of something unpleasant. Punishment: unpleasant consequence of behaviour.

Scientific credibility - by emphasising the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity and replication, behaviourism was influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline.

Real-life application -operant conditioning is a basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions (used positive reinforcement). Classical conditioning has been used in the treatment of phobias.

Mechanistic view of behaviour -see's people and animals as passive and machine-like responders to the environment. Other processes such as the cognitive approachemphasise the importance of mental events during learning, and suggest that people play a much more active role in their learning.

Social Learning Theory - people learn through observation and imitation of others, and it suggests that learning occurs directly through conditioning, but also indirectly.

Vicarious reinforcement - for indirect reinforcement to take placebehaviour is observed and imitated if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded. This is vicarious reinforcement.

The role of mediational processes -shows that cognitive factors are involved in learning. There are 4 mediational processes - attention (noticing behaviours), retention (remembering behaviour) , motor reproduction (ability to perform behaviour), and motivation (was it rewarded or punished?).

Identification -people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people they identify with (role models). This process is called modelling.

The importance of cognitive factors in learning - provides a more comprehensive explanation of learning than just conditioning by recognising the role of mediational processes.

Over-reliance on evidence from lab studies - participants may respond to demand characteristics in a lab setting, e.g. the purpose of the bobo doll is to strike it, so they may have been acting in a way they thought was expected. So, the research may not be reliable.

Underestimates the influence of biological factors - in the bobo doll experiment boys were more agressive than girls, so there may be hormonal influences, such as differences in levels of testosterone.

The cognitive approach - this argues that internal mental processes can, and should be studied scientifically. Focuses on things such as memory, perception and thinking. They are studied indirectly through the making of inferences based on people's behaviour.

Theoretical and computer models - there are theoretical models such as the information processing approach; which suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in stages, as in the multi-stores model. Computer models compare the mind to a computer, as there are similarities in the way information is processed (such as coding and stores). These are useful in the development of artificial intelligence.

The role of schema -the schema is a mental framework of beliefs and expectiations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.

Scientific and objective methods - uses highly controlled and rigorous methods such as lab experiments to produce reliable and objective data. So it has established a credible scientific basis.

Machine reductionisim -Computer analogy has been criticised. Machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and how it may affect our ability to process information (e.g. influence of anxiety on eyewitness testimony).

Application to everyday life -too abstract and theoretical in nature, as it can only may inferences. Also, experimental processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli (like word lists). So, research may lack external validity.

Biological approach - a perspective that emphasises the importance of biological structures and processes such as genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system. States that all  thoughts, feelings and bahaviours have a physical basis.

The genetic basis of behaviour - behavioural characteristics are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. Twin studies are used to determine whether certain traits have a genetic basis by looking at concordance rates (measure of similarity). Compares MZ twins and DZ twins.

Genotype and phenotype - a persons genotype is the particular set of genes a person possesses, and the phenotype is the characteristics of an individual based on genes and the environment.

Evolution and behaviour -Charles Darwin came up with the theory of natural selection, where the best adapted characteristis carry on through the generations.

Scientific methods of investigation - uses precise and highlyscientific methods, e.g. fMRI's, family and twin studies, and drug trials. Meaning it is based on reliable data.

Real-life application - led to development of psychoactive drugs that treat mental illnesses such as depression. This revolutionises treatment for many.

Casual conclusions - offers explanations for mental illness in terms of action of neurotransmitters. But the evidence from drug trials only show that a particular drug reduces symptoms, and simply assumes that the neurochemical in the drug causes the disorder.

The nervous system - our primary internal communication system. It has 2 main functions: to collect, process, and respond to environmental information. And to co-ordinate the working of different cells and organs in the body. It is divided into 2 sub-systems - the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

CNS - made up of the brain and spinal cord. It is the origin of all complex commands and decisions.

PNS - sends information to the CNS from the outisde world, and transmits messages from the CNS that directs muscles to act. It's sub-divided into the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and the somatic nervous system (SNS).

ANS and SNS - the ANS governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion and stress responses. The SNS controls muscle movement.

Glands and hormones - the endocrine system instructs gland to release hormones directly into the bloodstream, these hormones target specific organs, e.g. the thyroid gland produces thyroxine and increases the heart rate and also increases the metabolic rate in other cells on the way. The pituitary gland is located in the brain and controls the release of hormones from all other endocrine glands.

Fight of flight response - the endocrine system and ANS work together, e.g. when a stressor is perceived the ANS changes from the parasympathetic state into the sympathetic state, and adrenaline is released, triggering the fight or flight response. When the stress is gone the ANS will change back into the parasympathetic state. Sympathetic state - increases heart and breathing rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion and saliva production and contracgts rectum. Parasympathetic does the opposite.

Neurons - the basic building blocks of the nervous system, 80% are located in the brain. They are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals.

Types of neuron - sensory neurons carry messages from the PNS to the CNS, and have long dendrites and short axons. Relay neurons connect sensorty neurons to motor neurons or other relay neurons, they have short axons and dendrites. Motor neurons connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands, they have short dendrites and long axons.

The structure of a neuron - cell body (stoma) has a nucleus containing genetic material. Dendrites carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons to the cell body. The axon carries impulses away from the cell body, and is covered in a fatty layer called the myelin sheath that protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission. 

The myelin sheath is segmented by the nodes of Ranvier, that speed up the transmission. At the end of the axon there are terminal buttons that communicate with other neurons across the synapse.

Electric transmission -When in resting state the inside of the neuron cell is negatively harged, when activated by a stimulus the inside becomes positive for a second causing an action potential to occur. This creates an electrical impulse.

Synaptic transmission - process by which neurons communicate with eachother chemically across the synapse. They communicate in groups called neural networks. Signals within neurons are transmitted electrically, but between neurons they're transmitted chemically. At the end of the neuron (presynaptic terminal) a neurotransmitter is released from synaptic vesicles.

Neurotransmitter -these are chemicals that diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron. Once across the gap it is taken up by the postsynaptic receptor site, and the message is transferred back to electrical. Neurotransmitters have specific structures and functions,e.g. acetylcholine (ACh) is found where a motor neuron meets a muscle and it will cause the muscle to contract.

Excitation and Inhibition - excitation is when a neurotransmitter such as adrenaline increases the postive charge of the postsynaptic neuron, increasing the chance of a neuron being fired. Inhibition is when a neurotransmitter such as serotonin increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron, decreasing the chance of the neuron firing.