Approaches

Psychology has been around since 1875 when Wundt, a German physicist, established the first laboratory to study the human mind.

Wundt's approach: Wundt set up his laboratory in the University of Leipzig in 1875. His approach to studying the human mind was to focus on aspects of the mind that could be observed and measured in controlled conditions. Wundt used introspection.

Empiricism - the belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. It is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology.

Introspection - the process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional states as a result of the examination or observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings.

Scientific method - refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable, and the formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods.

The scientific cycle:

1. Objective, systematic and replicable observation.

2. Building, refining or falsifying.

3. Development of a scientific theory.

4. Testing.

Wundt was the first person to suggest that the mind could be studied empirically using experiments. However, the the concept of using introspection to gather data was criticised by researchers for being subjective.

Watson began the behaviourist movement, studying observable stimulus-response behaviour in the early 20th century after speaking at Columbia University in 1913, which signalled the beginning of psychology as a science. His approach attempted to be more objective than Wundt's research. 

+ If scientific theories no longer fit the facts, they can be refined or abandoned, meaning that scientific knowledge is self-corrective. Because psychologists are always repeating each other's experiments, it is hard for a theory that does not explain the facts to hang on for very long.

- By concentrating on objectivity and control in observations, scientific psychologists create contrived situations that tell us little about how people act in more natural environments.

- Not all psychologists share the view that all human behaviour can be explored by the use of scientific methods. If human behaviour is not subject to the laws and regularities implied by scientific methods, then predictions become impossible and these methods inappropriate.

1879 - Wundt opens the institute.

Early 1900s - Freud publishes work on dream analysis.

Early 20th century - behaviourism develops, studying stimulus-response learning.

1950s - humanism develops, studying 'the self'.

1960s-1970s - cognitive psychology develops, studying internal mental processes.

1960s - social learning theory develops as a 'newer' behaviourist approach.

Late 20th century - the rise of biological research related to human behaviour.

Classical conditioning - when a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response.

Pavlov (1927) - dogs:

1. Before conditioning: an unconditioned stimulus (the food) leads to an unconditioned response (salivation).

A neutral stimulus (ringing bell) produces no response.

2. During conditioning: pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus will create an association with the unconditioned response.

3. After conditioning: after regular pairing, the neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus and will lead to its own conditioned response.

+ Laboratory experiments - most research is done in laboratories and is therefore reliable due to the high level of control possible.

+ Development of treatments - classical conditioning has been used in developing treatments for mental illness such as systematic desensitisation to treat phobias, which has been found to be very effective.

- Ignores the biological approach - classical conditioning ignores the role of biology in behaviour. Instead, it suggests everything stems from stimulus-response learning.

- Ignores the cognitive approach - classical conditioning does not account for the role of cognition/thought in behaviour as this is not observable.

Operant conditioning - learning through reinforcement or punishment.

Skinner (1938) - rats: placed rats into a cage that was specially designed to deliver food only when a lever was pressed by the rat. He found that the rats quickly learned to press the lever and would continue to do this until they were full.

Types of reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement - a reward as a positive consequence of the action.

Negative reinforcement - removing something unpleasant as a positive consequence of an action.

Punishment - a negative consequence of an action.

Types of punishment:

Positive punishment - where an unpleasant action is given as a consequence of a behaviour.

Negative punishment - where something pleasant is removed as a consequence of a behaviour.

+ Effective - evidence suggests that it is an effective way for both humans and animals to learn.

+ Token economies - have been shown to be effective for treating many different problematic behaviours.

- Generalisable to humans - Skinner's work was conducted on animals and has been criticised for then being applied to humans. 

- Ethics - much of the research that took place on animals and exposed them to some unpleasant stimuli, which may breach ethical guidelines.

Social learning theory - learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded.

Identification - a form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude or behaviour because they want to be associated with a particular person/group.

Imitation - the action of using someone or something as a model and copying their behaviour.

Mediational processes - refers to the internal mental processes that exist between environmental stimuli and the response made by an individual to those stimuli.

Modelling - a form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour by observing another individual performing that behaviour.

Vicarious reinforcement - learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour, but through observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour.

Aim: to see if children would learn and imitate aggression from watching adult role models.

Procedure: children observed either an adult role model being aggressive towards a Bobo doll, or a demonstration of non-aggressive behaviour towards the doll. The children were then exposed to mild frustration before being left in a room with a Bobo doll.

Results: many of the children who saw the adult being aggressive went on to imitate that aggression on the doll. Less aggression was seen in the group who watched the non-aggressive adult behaviour.

Conclusion: children exposed to aggressive role models are likely to imitate their behaviour.

+ Cognitive approach - it accepts that cognitive processes are involved in learning and it is not just an automatic process.

+ Evidence - there is a great deal of research evidence supporting the claim that we learn from the observation of others (Bandura).

- Laboratory experiments - much of he evidence to support SLT comes from laboratory studies. Thus it may explain behaviour in controlled settings, but may not relate to real-life behaviour in the same way.

- Biological approach - SLT ignores the role of biological factors in shaping behaviour.

Assumptions:

1. Internal processes can be studied in laboratories by inferring the actions of the mind from behaviour seen.

2. The human mind works like a computer, with input from the senses and output in the form of behaviour.

The role of schemas:

Schema - a cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information in the brain.

They can help an individual to make sense of new information.

Theoretical models - in cognitive psychology, models are simplified, usually pictorial, representaions of a particular mental process based on current research evidence.

Computer models - refers to the process of using computer analogies as a representation of human cognition.

Input (sensory information) - Processing (sequence of mental operations) - Output (behaviour).

Cognitive neuroscience - an area of psychology dedicated to the underlying neural bases of cognitive functions.

The use of brain scanning techniques, such as PET or fMRI scans, means it is now possible to see the function of the brain whilst different behaviours are being performed.

+ Scientific - the cognitive approach is highly scientific because of the emphasis on controlled laboratory research in studying the mind.

+ Useful applications - the cognitive approach has many useful applications, such as in treatments for depression and the development of artificial intelligence.

- Simplifies human behaviour - it simplifies human behaviour too much because it ignores the role of human emotions and motivations in behaviour.

- Lack of validity - as the research tends to take place in laboratories, it could be thought to lack validity as the processes studied may be artificial.

Assumptions:

1. A person's central nervous system (CNS) has a very strong influence on their behaviour.

2. The genetic make-up of individuals influences their behaviour. This may also relate to the influence of evolution on behaviour.

3. Chemicals present in the body will influence behaviour.

Central nervous system (CNS):

The structure of the CNS - the brain and spinal cord - will influence a person's behaviour. The CNS allows communication between the environment and the brain/body by passing messages throughout the body.

Chemicals in the body, such as neurotransitters in the CNS will influence the behaviours seen.

Gene - a part of the chromosome of an organism that carries information in the form of DNA.

Genes have a strong influence in determining the kind of person they will become. We can observe the influence of genes by studying MZ twins who share an identical genetic code. A high concordance rate or correlation between identical twins' behaviour may suggest a genetic component is involved. However, concordance rates will not be 100% as even though the genotype is the same, the phenotype of the twins will still be different.

Genotype - the genetic make-up of an individual. It's a collection of inherited genetic material that is passed from generation to generation.

Phenotype - the observable characteristics of an individual. This is a consequence of the interaction of the genotype with the environment.

Evolution - refers to the change over successive generations of the genetic make-up of a certain population. The central proposition of an evolutionary perspective is that the genotype of a population is changeable rather than fixed, and this change is likely to be caused by the process of natural selection.

+ Scientific - the biological approach has been tested using highly scientific methods, such as brain scans and twin/family studies.

+ Useful applications - it has many practical applications, such as the use of drugs to treat mental illness.

- Ignores environmental influences - it does not take into account the influence of the environment on behaviour; it purely looks at nature and ignores nurture as an influence.

- Behaviours cannot be changed - it assumes that certain biological factors determine particular behaviours and they cannot be changed.

The psychodynamic approach was developed by Freud in the late 19th century.

The role of the unconscious:

Freud likened the mind to an iceberg.

Defence mechanisms:

1. Repression: the unconscious diversion of unacceptable wishes and desires to protect the person. They do not go away and continue to influence their behaviour.

2. Denial: the refusal to accept reality in order to avoid psychological pain associated with it.

3. Displacement: the redirection of impulses away from the real target to safer ones.

Psychosexual stages:

0-2 years - oral - focus on mouth; gratification achieved by feeding; id is dominant.

2-3 years - anal - focus on anus; gratification gained by pooping; ego develops through potty training.

3-6 years - phallic - focus on genitals; child passes through Oedipus or Electra stage; gender identity; superego develops.

6-12 years - latency - focus on developing relationships with others; the conflicts of previous three stages are repressed.

12+ years - genital - focus on sexual energy directed towards relationships with sexual partners.

Structure of personality:

Id: present from birth; unconscious; contains our primitive desires for sex and death; it demands immediate gratification.

Ego: develops in the anal stage; it is the mediator between the id and reality, trying to get what the id wants, but in a socially acceptable way.

Superego: develops in the phallic stage; consists of the conscience and the ego ideal; this punishes us with guilt when we transgress the rules of society and pushes us to be good.

+ Cure - it's the first talking cure for psychological disorders.

+ Unconscious - uncovers the unconscious motivation for mental health issues.

- Sexuality - accused of being sexist and overemphasising male sexuality.

- Cultures - culturally limited, as it was developed within Western society.

Humanistic psychology was developed by Rogers and Maslow in the 1950s.

Key ideas:

1. Humans cannot be reduced to components.

2. Humans are all unique.

3. Humans are conscious and aware of themselves in the context of other people's reactions to them.

4. Humans have free will - the ability to make choices - and therefore have responsibility for their actions.

5. Humans are purposeful and creative; they have intention behind their behaviour.

Free will - the ability to choose how to behave without being influenced by external influences.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs (1943, 1954):

(Top) Self-actualisation: morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts.

Esteem: self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others.

Love/belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy.

Safety: security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of the family, of health, of property.

(Bottom) Physiological: breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion.

Self-actualisation - the drive to realise one's true potential.

Conditions of worth - conditions imposed on an individual's behaviour and development that are considered necessary to earn positive regard from significant others.

Client-centred therapy:

The relationship is of central importance to this therapy. The therapist must create conditions in which personal growth can take place.

The three selves:

The self-concept: the self you think you are; this is similar to self-esteem.

The ideal self: the self you aspire to being.

The real self: who you really are.

Congruence - if there is similarity between a person's ideal self and self-image, a state of congruence exists.

+ Personal growth occurs - it allows for personal growth and accepts the idea of free will, which seems intuitively correct; we all feel that we make choices.

+ Effective - the therapy developed from humanism has been shown to be effective and is a good alternative to lengthy psychoanalysis or medication.

- Culturally biased - the ideas central to the approach have been criticised for being culturally biased towards individualistic cultures, and have limited usefulness in collectivist cultures.

- Not scientific - because it acknowledges the subjectivity of experience, its claims are hard to test scientifically.

Nomothetic - all behaviour is a result of what learn and then gather quantitative data; Bandura (generalises resuls).

Reductionist - explains behaviour from a response to a stimulus; Little Albert.

Deterministic - behaviour is controlled by external influences; environmental determinism.

Nurture - all behaviour is shaped by what people are exposed to; born as a 'blank slate'.

Nomothetic - uses different experimental methods to collect quantitative data; Loftus.

Reductionist + holistic - investigates 'rational processing' of information to behaviour; person's rational thoughts (slightly holistic); Loftus; takes biological into account (reductionist).

Free will - it acknowledges fre will through 'rational processing' of information to direct behaviour; Loftus.

Nature + nuture - born with the ability for memory, however, if you don't learn something, you can't copy; environment will determine how good it is.

Nomothetic - through the use of laboratory experiments; quantitatie data; Maguire.

Reductionist - explains behaviour purely from our biology; genes; OCD - chemical imbalances in the brain.

Deterministic - behaviour is controlled by our genes; biological determinism.

Nature - all behaviour is pre-determined by our genes and biochemistry.

Idiographic - Little Hans - Freud looked into his behviour only; case study.

Holistic - looks at the whole person's behaviour; case study; don't look at biological factors.

Deterministic - behaviour is controlled by unconscious fear, desires from traumatic past events, experiences; psychic determinism.

Nurture - unconscious drives our behaviour, however, it is also from past experiences.

Idiographic - study an individual's behaviour; case studies; unique.

Holistic - study the individual as a whole.

Free will - they choose how to behave.

Nature - born with emotions, thoughts, etc. but behaviour is influenced by the environment.