Approaches

?
  • Created by: Mary Sara
  • Created on: 05-05-22 17:37

Wundt and Emergence of Psychology

Wilhem Wundt established the first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. The aim was to describe the nature of human consciousness in a carefully controlled and scientific environment. Wundt pioneered introspection as the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind. Wundt used controlled procedures. The same standardised instructions were given to all participants and stimuli were presented in the same order. For instance, participants were given a ticking metronome and they would report their thoughts, images and sensations, which were then recorded. Introspection led to identifying the structure of consciousness by breaking it up into the basic structures; thought, images and sensations. This marked the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its broader philosophical roots.

Watson argued that introspection was subjective in that it is influenced by a personal perspective. According to the behaviourist approach, ‘scientific’ psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured. Skinner brought natural sciences into psychology. The behaviourists’ focus on learning and the use of carefully controlled lab studies dominated psychology. Following the computer revelation, the study of mental processes was seen as legitimate within psychology. Cognitive psychologists likened the mind to a computer and tested their predictions about memory and attention using experiments. Biological psychologists have taken advantage of advances in technology, including recording brain activity, using scanning techniques such as fMRI and EEG, and advanced genetic research.

1 of 33

Wundt and Emergence of Psychology Evaluation

One strength of Wundt’s work is that it is scientific. For example, he recorded the introspections within a controlled lab environment. He also standardised his procedures so that all the participants received the same information and were tested in the same way. Therefore Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to the later scientific approaches in psychology.

One limitation is that aspects of Wundt’s work are subjective. Wundt relied on participants self-reporting their ‘private’ mental processes. Such data is subjective. Participants may also have hidden some of their thoughts. This makes it difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’. Therefore Wund’t early efforts to study the mind were naïve and would not meet the criteria of scientific study.

One strength is that research in modern psychology can claim to be scientific. Psychology has the same aims as natural sciences - to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour. Learning, cognitive and biological approaches all use scientific methods. For example, lab studies are controlled and unbiased. Throughout the 20th century, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline.

One limitation of psychology is that some approaches use subjective data. The humanistic approach does not express general laws of behaviour. The psychodynamic approach uses case studies with unrepresentative data. Psychologists study humans who are active participants and therefore respond to demand characteristics. Therefore a scientific approach to the study of human thought and experience is not possible.

2 of 33

Behaviourist Approach

The behavioural approach is only concerned with studying behaviour that can be observed and measured. It is not concerned with the mental processes of the mind. Introspection was rejected by behaviourists as its concepts were vague and difficult to measure. Behaviourists tried to maintain more control and objectivity within their research and relied on lab studies to achieve this. Behaviourists suggest the processes that govern learning are the same in all species, so animals such as dogs and rats can replace humans as experimental subjects.

Classical conditioning refers to learning by association. Pavlov conducted research by conditioning dogs to salivate when a bell rings. Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus was the food, the unconditioned response to the food was salivation and the bell was the neutral stimulus. During conditioning, the bell rang and the dog was presented with food. After multiple pairings, the dog learned to associate the sound of a bell with food. Therefore the bell became the conditioned stimulus and salivation was the conditioned response.

3 of 33

Behaviourist Approach Evaluation

One strength of behaviourism is that it uses well-controlled research. The approach focused on the careful measurement of observable behaviour within controlled lab settings. Behaviourists have broken down behaviour into stimulus-response units and studied causal relationships. This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.

One strength of classical conditioning is its application to the treatment of phobias. For example it has led to the development of systematic desensitisation, a treatment which reduces the anxiety associated with phobias. This treatment works by using the principles of classical conditioning to replace the learned response of anxiety with relaxation. This matters because it is an effective treatment for a range of phobias, including arachnophobia.

One weakness of the behaviourist approach is the reliance on non-human animals. Some psychologists claim that Skinner’s reliance on rats and pigeons means that we are unable to draw conclusions in relation to human behaviour. These psychologists argue that humans have free will and that our behaviour is not shaped by classical or operant conditioning. This matters because psychologists may be unable to generalise the findings from animals to humans.

4 of 33

Social Learning Theory

Bandura agreed with the behaviourist approach that learning occurs through experience. However, he proposed that learning takes place in a social context through observation and imitation of others’ behaviour. Children and adults observe other people’s behaviour and take note of its consequences. Behaviour that is seen to be rewarded is more likely to be copied. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

There are four mediational processes involved in learning. Attention is how well the behaviour is noticed. Retention is how well the behaviour is remembered. Moto reproduction is how well the behaviour is carried out. Motivation is the will to perform the behaviour. These processes suggest that learning and performance do not have to occur together.

People are more likely to imitate the behaviour of those whom they identify with. Imitation is also likely to occur if the observed behaviour is positively reinforced. 

In 1961, Bandura carried out a lab study. He gathered 36 girls and 36 boys aged between 3-6 years. Group 1 was shown a model aggressively hitting a doll. Group 2 were shown a non-aggressive model. Group 3 was a control group as they were not shown a model. The children were then individually taken to a room with a bobo doll. Group 1 were the most aggressive towards the doll as they had seen the violent model. This supports social learning theory as it shows children imitate behaviour of models even if that behaviour is aggressive.

5 of 33

Social Learning Theory Evaluation

One strength of social learning theory is the application to health campaigns. Andsager et al found that the perceived similarity to a model in anti-alcohol advertisements was positively related to the message’s effectiveness. Health campaigns try to match characters that model the desired behaviours with the target audience, to increase the level of identification, to bring about greater social learning. This suggests that social learning theory has had a positive impact on health promotion campaigns.

Another strength of social learning theory is the research support for identification. Fox and Bailenson found that humans are more likely to imitate computer generated ‘virtual’ humans who were similar to the real participant, in comparison to those who were dissimilar. Participants who observed a similar virtual model exercising engaged in more exercise in the 24 hours following the experiment in comparison to those who viewed a dissimilar model exercising. This demonstrates the importance of identification in social learning theory and suggests that humans are more likely to imitate the behaviour of models who are similar rather than dissimilar.

6 of 33

Cognitive Approach

The cognitive approach argues that internal mental processes should be studied scientifically. The cognitive approach has investigated areas of human behaviour such as memory, perception and thinking. These processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed, so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside people’s minds on the basis of their behaviour.

One way to study internal processes is through the use of theoretical models. The information processing approach, which suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval. The cognitive approach uses computer models, where the mind is compared to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way information is processed. These models use the concepts of a central processing unit, coding and the use of ‘stores’ to hold information. Such computational models of the mind have proved useful in the development of artificial intelligence.

7 of 33

Cognitive Approach 2

Cognitive processing can often be affected by a person’s beliefs or expectations. Schema are ‘packages’ of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system; for example, you have a schema for a chair – something that you can sit on. Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping. As we get older, our schema becomes more detailed and sophisticated. Schema enables us to process lots of information quickly and this is a useful mental short-cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. However, schema may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors.

Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. Mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions has a long history in psychology. Broca identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production. Advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans enabled scientists to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes. For example,  Tulving et al. were able to show how episodic and semantic memory may be located on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex. As well as this, the system in charge of working memory is thought to reside in a similar area. Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders. The focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded recently to include the use of computer-generated models that are designed to ‘read’ the brain. This has led to the development of mind mapping techniques known as ‘brain fingerprinting’.

8 of 33

Cognitive Approach Evaluation

A strength of the cognitive approach is that it is considered to be scientific. Cognitive psychologists use the scientific methods to investigate human behaviour, and so their findings are not subjective. This is especially evident in the role cognitive neuroscience has played in modern cognitive psychology, with its focus on brain scanning techniques. This means that findings are based on far more than the introspection of Wundt’s early psychology, and the results of these studies can be said to be reliable.

A criticism of the cognitive approach is that the studies often lack ecological validity. Many studies of the cognitive approach tend to use tasks that have little in common with participants’ everyday experiences. For example, experiments in memory use artificial test materials that are relatively meaningless in everyday life. Therefore, much of the research in cognitive psychology is said to lack ecological validity, as it fails to reflect real-life behaviour.

The cognitive approach assumes that the brain is like a computer and can therefore be explained in the same way. However an issue with this is that humans are different from computers in many ways, such as the fact that they experience emotions for example. The cognitive approach is therefore reductionist, as it aims to explain behaviour through computer processes and theoretical models, and fails to consider the limitations of this. Reductionism is trying to explain behaviour through breaking it into simpler component parts, such as computer processes - this is why the cognitive approach is an example of machine reductionism.

9 of 33

Biological Approach

The biological approach suggests that everything psychological is at first biological, so to fully understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures and processes within the body, such as genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system. An understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour. From a biological perspective, the mind lives in the brain – meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis.

Behaviour geneticists study whether behavioural characteristics, such as intelligence, personality or mental disorders are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics such as height and eye colour. Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates between pairs of twins. Higher concordance rates among monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins is evidence of a genetic basis. Research suggests that mental disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and anorexia nervosa are genetic. This is because concordance rates for these disorders are much higher in monozygotic twins, who have 100% the same genes, than in dizygotic twins who only have 50% the same genes. For example, schizophrenia in monozygotic twins has a concordance rate of 48% where it is only 17% in dizygotic twins, hence illustrating the influence of genes. However, concordance rates are not 100% in monozygotic twins, therefore the onset of such disorders cannot be purely genetic, there must be some other factors, for example the environment.

10 of 33

Biological Approach 2

A person’s genotype is their actual genetic make-up, whereas phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics. The expression of a genotype is influenced by environmental factors. For instance, identical adult twins usually look slightly different because one has exercised more or one has dyed their hair and so on. So, despite having the same genes, the way identical twins’ genes are expressed is different. This illustrates what many biological psychologists would accept, that much of human behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors and the environment.

In the 19th century, Charles Darwin introduced natural selection. The main principle of this theory is that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival will continue in future generations. This happens in a similar way to a farmer deciding which animals to use for breeding – the farmer selects the ones who possess desirable characteristics. For example, if one of a farmer’s cows has a high milk yield the farmer chooses this cow for further breeding so his stock of cows become progressively better milk producers. The possessor is more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on these traits.

11 of 33

Biological Approach Evaluation

One strength of the biological approach is its use of scientific methods. The biological approach uses experimental methods as its main method of investigation. Experimental studies take place in highly controlled environments and use sophisticated imaging and recording techniques, including PET and fMRI. Experimental studies are easy to replicate, thus adding validity to the original findings if they can be reproduced.

Another strength is its application to the treatment of psychological disorders. Research into the role of neurochemical imbalances in depression has led to the development of drug treatments which correct this imbalance to minimise depressive symptoms. For example, SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) stop the reuptake of serotonin in the synapse and increase the level of serotonin being absorbed by the postsynaptic neuron, alleviating the symptoms of depression. This matters because the biological approach has helped improve the lives of many sufferers of depression by providing suitable drug treatments.

However, one criticism of the biological approach is the problem with evolutionary explanations of behaviour. Many human behaviours can be transmitted both by genetic and cultural routes. Furthermore, many patterns of human behaviour have purely cultural origins with no survival or reproductive benefit, for example musical appreciation. This matters because evolutionary explanations are unable to explain behaviours with no survival benefit and therefore do not provide a complete theory of human behaviour.

12 of 33

Biological Approach Evaluation 2

Another criticism of the biological approach is the danger of genetic explanations. Recent research has found a genetic basis for criminal behaviour which has led to concerns about how this information might be used. For example, critics claim that this may lead to genetic screening to identify people at risk of criminality which could lead to discrimination against those people. This matters because individuals may be 'labelled' as criminals because of their genes, when such complex behaviours are far from straightforward.

A final criticism of the biological approach is that it is reductionist. Reductionism is the view that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it into its smallest components, such as genes, neurotransmitters and hormones. For example, the biological explanation of depression suggests that depression is caused by a low level of serotonin, while ignoring cognitive, emotional and cultural factors. This matters because there are other factors that can contribute to depression and the biological approach ignores all these other factors.

13 of 33

Psychodynamic Approach

According to the psychodynamic approach, there are vast parts of the mind that are inaccessible to conscious awareness. The metaphor of an iceberg was used by Freud to explain this, with consciousness being the top of the iceberg which we are aware of and the unconscious taking up a much larger proportion of the human mind, even though we are not directly aware or able to access it at will. Any traumatic events or memories from childhood are repressed into the unconscious mind and kept there, hidden from conscious awareness. However, psychodynamic theorists suggest that such events or memories are never truly forgotten and can be explored through psychoanalysis. The unconscious mind can reveal itself in several ways including dreams, fantasies and slips of the tongue, otherwise known as ‘Freudian slips’.

According to Freud, the personality is made up of three components: the ID, ego and superego. The ID is pure ****** energy and is governed by the pleasure principle. It consists of primal urges which Freud called drives and seeks nothing but pleasure and instant gratification. It operates on instinct and is the part of the personality which is present at birth. The ego is governed by the reality principle and is tasked with taming the id and balancing the demands of the superego. The ego is not present at birth and arises in response to control by others. The superego is governed by the morality principle: our sense of right and wrong. It is characterised by the ‘inner voice’ that tells us when we have crossed into the boundaries of unacceptable behaviour. The superego is the internalised parent and develops in response to parental discipline.

14 of 33

Psychodynamic Approach 2

Defence mechanisms are used by the ego in order to cope with the conflicting demands of the other two parts of the personality. The ego works by distorting reality so that the individual can continue with their everyday life without unpleasant feelings or memories dominating their conscious awareness. Repression occurs when a traumatic or distressing memory is forced out of conscious awareness and into the unconscious mind. For example, an adult who experienced neglect at the hands of their parents as a child may have no conscious awareness that this trauma occurred, although they may show distrust of others in later life. Denial involves a refusal to accept the truth or reality of a situation, acting as though nothing distressing has happened. For example, someone with a gambling addiction may deny that they have a problem with their finances despite being in a large amount of debt. Displacement is when the feelings towards a target individual cannot be expressed directly and are therefore transferred onto someone/something else. For example, someone who was bullied at school may go home and take it out by being mean towards their younger sibling.

Little Hans was a case study used by Freud to support the Oedipus Conflict theory. Hans was a five year old boy that developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street. Freud suggested that Hans’s phobia was actually a form of displacement, in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred on to horses. The horses were merely a symbolic representation of Hans’s real unconscious fear: the fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus conflict.

15 of 33

Psychodynamic Approach 3

According to Freud, children pass through several psychosexual stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital. During each stage, the child has its desires for bodily pleasure denied and redirected by its parents until they focus exclusively on the appropriate sexual outlet for the given stage. According to Freud, if a child fails to resolve the conflict at each of the psychosexual stages, they may develop a fixation where they display certain behaviours in their adult life. The driver of this process is the Oedipus complex in which boys relinquish their unconscious desire for their mother and internalise the fear of castration by their father. This process is traumatic, and cannot be confronted directly, and so the ego establishes defence mechanisms, such as repression and denial, to mediate the psychological terrors it generates. In the oral stage, the infant experiences pleasure through their mouth. An effect of unresolved conflict may be smoking or nail-biting. In the anal stage, the child must undergo potty training in order to control their bowel movements. An effect of unresolved conflict may cause the person to become an obsessive perfectionist or messy and thoughtless. In the phallic stage, infant boys must overcome their unconscious sexual desire for their mother by identifying with their father. An effect of unresolved conflict may cause reckless or narcissistic behaviour. In the latent stage, the sexual energy which has driven the previous stages now becomes latent, so the individual can focus on the world around them and form friendships. In the genital stage, the psychosexual energy taking residence in the genitals should be directed towards the formation of adult relationships. A person who becomes fixated at the genital stage might struggle to form heterosexual relationships.

16 of 33

Psychodynamic Approach Evaluation

Freud’s views were based on his observations of men, and his views about women were far less developed. Freud seemed content to ignore the extent to which female sexuality differed from male sexuality, and he often seemed ignorant about women and their sexual life. This has led critics such as Karen Horney to break away from traditional Freudian theory, and found a feminist Psychoanalysis. This is beneficial since so many Psychoanalytic patients are female. Therefore a big limitation of Freud’s theory is that it does not generalise well to women and arguably can only therefore be applied to men.

Critics of Psychoanalysis claim that these ideas are not scientific, as their claims are not falsifiable or testable. However, many of the claims have in fact been supported by scientific, empirical evidence. For example, Fisher and Greenberg (1996) summarised 2500 of these studies, and concluded that the empirical evidence for Psychoanalysis was comparable to that for other major approaches in psychology. Therefore psychoanalysis can be considered as a viable approach in psychology as it is supported by empirical research evidence.

17 of 33

Humanistic Approach

There are many strands of humanistic psychology, but all draw on the work of the field’s founding figures, Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Humanistic psychology is different from the other approaches in psychology as it is intensively focused on discovering what it means to be fully human. Humanistic psychologists insist that the other approaches in psychology are reductionist, deterministic and, as a result, cannot explain the holistic complexity of human behaviour.

Humanistic psychology assumes that every individual can assert free will and have a choice in how they behave. This means that everyone can consciously control and influence their own personal destiny, even within the constraints that exist in life from outside forces. This idea makes the humanistic approach radically different from the other approaches that suggest that human behaviour is, to some extent, determined.

Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs is an enduring model of psychological development. First of all, the most basic human needs to be met are biological (physiological) – air, food, water, clothing, shelter, sleep, etc. Then, come safety needs which include resources, employment, family, and health; next is the need for love and belonging, from friends, family, and a sexual partner. After that comes the need for esteem including self-esteem and respect from others. Once these ‘deficiency needs’ have been met, people can turn their attention to self-actualisation, which is at the top of the hierarchy and includes, spirituality, creativity and acceptance of the world as it is.

18 of 33

Humanistic Approach 2

Whilst Maslow suggested that it is often the case that individuals ‘work up’ through the hierarchy step-by-step, he recognised that this is not always the case for everybody. For example, someone may need to address their need for self-esteem before finding love.

Self-actualisation is rare, but its achievement provides the possibility of true self-awareness and an honest relationship with the realities of an imperfect world. Maslow believed that self-actualisation takes the form of peak experiences which are characterised by feelings of euphoria and seeing the world with awe and wonder, without any fear or inhibitions.

Rogers was primarily interested in two basic human needs: the need for self-worth and the need for unconditional positive regard from other people. Both emerge from good relationships with supportive parents in childhood, and later with friends and partners. An individuals’ self-worth has a direct impact on psychological well-being. When an individual is the recipient of unconditional positive regard, they develop conditions of worth as a result. Parents are often the people who provide a child with unconditional positive regard during their upbringing. However, some parents impose conditions of worth on their children meaning that they must behave in certain ways to receive this positive regard. Conditions of worth are a type of expectation whereby an individual feels that their approval is dependent upon meeting them in order for other people to see them favourably. It is possible that a person will only feel self- acceptance should they meet these conditions of worth set by others which can produce a feeling of incongruence.

19 of 33

Humanistic Approach 3

For Rogers, unhappiness and dissatisfaction were the outcomes of a psychological gap between self- concept (the way you think you are) and the ideal self (the way you would like to be). When these two concepts are incongruent, it is necessary to use defence mechanisms to provide protection against feeling negative. On the other hand, when there is an agreement between an individual’s self-concept and their ideal self, they are said to be in a state of congruence. However, it is uncommon for a person to be congruent all of the time, so most individuals will have, or are experiencing, some degree of incongruence.

It was the purpose of Rogerian therapy to close the gap of incongruence between self-concept and the ideal self, and thus allow an individual to recognise both their psychological limits and their strengths, and achieve a realistic balance between them. Rogers believed that through taking a client-centred (person-centered) approach to counselling, an individual would be helped to make positive steps towards resolving their issues, learn a deeper understanding of themselves and, ultimately, achieve self-actualisation. The role of the therapist in this process is to provide unconditional positive regard to the client by expressing acceptance, empathy and understanding of their condition. When the client feels sufficiently supported, their conditions of worth affecting their self-concept will dissipate enabling them to move towards their ideal self and how they want to behave, rather than how they feel that they should.

20 of 33

Humanistic Approach Evaluation

A strength of the humanistic approach is that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can be applied more broadly to economic development of countries, as well as personal development of individuals. Hagerty (1999) found that in the early stages of economic development, priority is on physiological and safety needs, such as food and reduction in murder and crime rates. Once these basic needs have been met, countries then focus on esteem needs (e.g. women’s rights) and self-actualisation (e.g. access to education). This evidence from 88 countries over a 34-year period (longitudinal study) supports a hierarchy of needs in societies as well as individuals, adding strength to the explanation.

There is research evidence to support Carl Rogers’ view that people who experience conditional positive regard display more ‘false self’ behaviour. For example, Harter et al (1996) found that teenagers who feel they have to fulfil certain conditions to gain their parents’ approval frequently dislike themselves. They found that adolescents who create a ‘false self’, pretending to be the sort of person their parents would love, are also more likely to develop depression. This supports ‘conditions of worth’; the idea that unconditional positive regard from parents is essential for developing self-worth.

21 of 33

Humanistic Approach Evaluation 2

A strength of the humanistic approach is that it is a ‘free will’ approach. This is a strength because determinism removes freedom and dignity, and devalues human behaviour. Free will acknowledges the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny. Therefore it is a preferable explanation of human behaviour to, for example, the behavioural approach which suggests we are merely a product of reinforcers and punishments.

The humanistic approach is unrealistic with an idealised view of human nature. It assumes that people are inherently growth-oriented, not recognising some people’s capacity for self-destructive behaviour. In addition, the humanistic assumption that all problems arise from blocked self-actualisation ignores situational forces in society, such as prejudice and inequality of opportunity. This means that the humanistic approach does not give a full description of human behaviour and development.

However, cultural differences exist as shown from cross-cultural studies. For example, Nevis (1983) found that in China belonging took priority over physiological needs, and self-actualisation related to contributions to the community rather than individual development. Many studies confirm that people in Western cultures focus more on personal identity, whereas Chinese, Japanese and Koreans (collectivist) define self-concept in terms of social relationships. Maslow acknowledged that needs may appear in a different order or may be absent altogether. This more flexible hierarchy fits the evidence better.

22 of 33

Views on Development

In terms of child development, the psychodynamic approach presents the most coherent theory of development, tying its concepts and processes to specific (psychosexual) stages that are determined by age. That said, Freud saw very little further development once the child enters the genital stage in the teen years. Stage theories within the cognitive approach have contributed to our understanding of child development. For example, as part of their intellectual development, children form increasingly complex concepts (schema) as they get older. Maturation is an important principle within the biological approach whereby genetically determined changes in a child’s physiological status influence psychological and behavioural characteristics. Humanistic psychologists see the development of the self as ongoing throughout life; a child’s relationship with its parents is seen as a key determinant of psychological health. Finally, the behaviourist approach and social learning theory do not offer coherent stage theories of development but instead see the processes that underpin learning as continuous, occuring at any age.

23 of 33

Nature VS Nurture

The debate about whether human behaviour is more influenced by inherited biological factors (nature) or by the environment and experience (nurture) has a long history in psychology. The biological approach and the two learning approaches are furthest apart in this respect. Behaviourists characterised babies as ‘blank slates’ at birth and suggest that all behaviour comes about through learned associations, reinforcement contingencies or, in the case of social learning theory, observation and imitation. In contrast, the biological approach argues from a position that ‘anatomy is destiny’ and behaviour is the result of a genetic blueprint that we inherit from our parents. Other approaches are less easy to categorise. Although Freud thought that much of our behaviour was driven by biological drives and instincts, he also saw relationships with parents as playing a fundamental role in future development. Similarly, humanistic psychologists regard parents, friends and wider society as having a critical impact on the person’s self-concept. Finally, although cognitive psychologists would recognise that many of our information processing abilities and schema are innate, they would also point to the fact that these are constantly refined through experience.

24 of 33

Reductionism

Reductionism refers to the belief that human behaviour can be most effectively explained by breaking it down into constituent parts. The opposing view is holism, that phenomena are best understood by looking at the interplay and interaction of many different factors. Behaviourism is reductionist in the sense that it breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus-response units for ease of testing in the lab. Also reductionist is the biological approach in the way that it explains human behaviour and psychological states at the level of the gene or neuron. The psychodynamic approach reduces much of our behaviour to the influence of sexual drives and biological instincts, although Freud’s argument that personality is a dynamic interaction between the three parts of the personality is often viewed as a more holistic explanation. The cognitive approach has been accused of machine reductionism by presenting people as information processing systems and ignoring the influence of emotion on behaviour. Like behaviourists, social learning theorists reduce complex learning to a handful of key processes (imitation, modelling, etc.) though they do at least place emphasis on cognitive factors that mediate learning, and how these interact with external influences. Finally, and quite distinct from other approaches, is humanistic psychology, which formulates a holistic approach to understanding human behaviour. This involves investigating all aspects of the individual, including the effects of interaction with others and wider society.

25 of 33

Determinism

Determinism is often confused with reductionism but is quite distinct from it – though many determinist explanations are also reductionist. Determinism proposes that all behaviour has an internal or external cause and is thus predictable. As we have seen, the behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as environmentally determined by external influences that we are unable to control. The biological approach advocates a form of genetic determinism in its assumption that much of our behaviour is directed by innate influences. Psychic determinism is a key feature of the psychodynamic approach insofar as we cannot know the unconscious forces that drive our behaviour, and that these are simply rationalised by our conscious minds. The positions described above are known as hard determinism; the next two approaches take a ‘softer’ view. The cognitive approach suggests that we are the ‘choosers’ of our own thoughts and behaviours, yet these choices can only operate within the limits of what we know and have experienced. Social learning theorists, like Bandura, put forward the notion of reciprocal determinism – the idea that as well as being influenced by our environment, we also exert some influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform. Only humanistic psychology stands alone in its assertion that human beings have free will and operate as active agents who determine their own development

26 of 33

Explanation and Treatment of Abnormal Behaviour

The behaviourist model sees abnormality as arising from maladaptive or faulty learning in the sense that inappropriate or destructive patterns of behaviour have been reinforced. Behaviour therapies, such as systematic desensitisation, which take a symptom-based approach have been applied successfully to the treatment of phobias. Social learning theory has had relatively little application to treatment, but the principles of modelling and observational learning have been used to explain how negative behaviours such as aggression may be learned through the influence of dysfunctional role models. Freud saw anxiety disorders as emerging from unconscious conflict, childhood trauma and the overuse of defence mechanisms. Psychoanalysis has had some success as a therapy but it is not appropriate for everyone because it requires a considerable input from the patient in terms of time and also ability to talk about and reflect on emotions. Much more effective and applicable is cognitive therapy (especially when combined with behaviour therapy as CBT) in the treatment, for example, of depression. It aims to identify and eradicate faulty thinking which is assumed to be the root cause of maladaptive behaviour. Also effective is humanistic therapy (or counselling) based on Rogers’ philosophy that closing the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self will stimulate personal growth. Finally, the biological approach, many would claim, has revolutionised the treatment of mental disorders through the development of drug therapy which regulates chemical imbalances in the brain.

27 of 33

Behaviourist Approach 2

Operant conditioning refers to learning through reinforcement. Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Positive reinforcement is receiving a reward when a behaviour is performed. Negative reinforcement is avoiding something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed. Punishment is an unpleasant consequence of a behaviour. Positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Punishment decreases it. During Skinner's research, a rat activated a level it was rewarded with a food pellet. A desirable consequence led to the behaviour being repeated. When the rat pressed a lever, it avoided an electric shock. This meant the behaviour would be repeated.

28 of 33

Behaviourist Approach Evaluation 2

One limitation of behaviourism is a form of environmental determinism. The approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned and ignored any influence free will may have on behaviour. Skinner suggested that free will is an illusion. When we think we made a decision it is actually our past conditioning that determined the outcome. This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour.

29 of 33

Social Learning Theory 2

In 1963, the experiment was repeated, however, the three groups were shown an aggressive model with different consequences. In group 1, the model was praised. In group 2 the model was punished. In group 3 the model received no consequences. When left on their own, group 1 showed the most aggressive behaviour followed by group 3. Group 2 was the least aggressive. This shows modelling behaviour is more likely to occur when the model is positively reinforced, highlighting the importance of vicarious reinforcement.

30 of 33

Social Learning Theory Evaluation 2

One criticism of social learning theory is the problem of causality. Siegel and McCormick argue that young people who possess deviant attitudes and values are more likely to seek out peers with similar attitudes and behaviour, as they are more fun to be with. Consequently, it could be argued that humans do not observe and imitate negative behaviours, but those with delinquent attitudes seek out similar peers. This suggests that social learning theory may not be the cause of delinquent behaviour and other explanations may account for learning of negative behaviours, including crime.

Another criticism of social learning theory is the issue of complexity. Social learning theory explains the development of gender specific behaviour, as a result of gender-specific roles. However, children are exposed to many different influences which interact in a complex way. These include gender predisposition, media portrayals and so on. This matters because it is difficult to separate the effect of social learning theory from the many other factors that also influence behaviour.

31 of 33

Cognitive Approach Evaluation 2

The cognitive approach adopts a soft determinist view of behaviour. This approach therefore believes that the goals of an individual’s behaviour are determined, but the individual is free to choose how they reach this goal. For example an individual’s goal of memorising information for a test may be determined, however how this individual achieves this goal is freely chosen. The fact that an individual has some free will can be seen as a strength of the cognitive approach, as it considers the effect this may have on an individual’s behaviour. However, the approach is still deterministic, meaning that it is also a limitation of the approach as it does not consider how this fully influences an individual’s behaviour.

32 of 33

Psychodynamic Approach Evaluation 2

Psychoanalysis represented a huge shift and advancement in psychological thinking. It suggested case studies as a new method of collecting data and it represented a move away from introspection towards the analysis of spoken material. This led towards the growth of psychological explanations of mental disorder, and the rise of talking therapies as new treatments. Psychoanalysis has been shown to give long-term relief from symptoms, and so this has been valuable. Therefore, a strength of psychoanalysis is that it has allowed the expansion and development of psychology, including new methods of treating individuals.

Sue and Sue (2008) argue that Psychoanalysis is not relevant to those in non-Western cultures. Psychoanalysts believe that mental disorder is the result of repressed material being ‘locked’ in the unconscious, and that freeing this material in a supportive environment is the key to dealing with the material and recovering from Disorder. However non-Western cultures may not value insight as much; for example in China and Japan, it is thought to be more beneficial to simply avoid thoughts which bring distress, and people are not usually willing to discuss them openly. Therefore Freud’s theory can be criticised as it cannot be applied to all cultures.

33 of 33

Comments

No comments have yet been made

Similar Psychology resources:

See all Psychology resources »See all Approaches resources »