Antarctica

• Larger than Europe

• 55 times larger than the UK

• Described as 'the last wilderness on Earth.'

• Highest, driest, coldest and windiest continent in the world. 

• Classified as a Cold Desert.

• Represents 10% of the world's total land area.

• 99% covered by ice

• Avg temp has risen 2.5 degrees celsius since the 1940s

• A continuous belt of sea ice surrounding Antarctica.

• Over 1/2 the ocean freezs in winter to a depth of 1 metre.

• In summer most of the ocean melts giving a small timescale for people/resources to be shipped in and out. 

• Forms around 10% of the worlds ocean area.

• Land discovered in the 19th century

• Sealing (meat/fur) in the 18th century

• Whaling until 1982

• Fishing from the 1960s, especially krill

• Fishing still evident

• Growing tourism market

• Research

Sealing:

• Sealing started in the 18th century around South Georgia and by 1800 fur seals had been wiped out.
• Interests shifted to the South Shetland Islands - 300,000 seals wiped out in 3 years

Whaling:

• Whaling began in the 19th century.
• Blue whales were especially targetted. 
• Products include oil and whalebone.
• Blue and humpback whales are fully protected from the 1960s. 

• 45,000 tourists per year.
• Boatloads of around 20 with expert guides
• Cruise ships made from converted ice breaker ships.

Positives and Negatives

• Proven that there is no disruption to pengiuns.
• People can learn about the continent. 
• Unique legal status makes enforcement difficult.
• Max of 100 passengers of one ship allowed ashore at one time, 500 passengers per ship and there for longer since tourits take it in turn leaving. 
• Could destory near-perfect environent  .
• Tourist attractions include huts from Scott and SHakleton expeditions. 
• Ecosystems are extremally fragile and impacts are left for a long time.
• Summer tourist season coincides with breeding season

• Seas around Antarctica include 100 fish species.

• Industry is hugely in demand.

• Long line fishing is illegal.

• Krill are the basis of food farming and are in high demand. 

There are significant overlaps on the territory claimed, reasons why you would want to claim terrirory:

1) Antarctica is rich in natural resources

2) Unique enviroment to collect scientific data

3) Provides a strategic position in the Southern Hemisphere

4) National pride and history

Treaty was agreed and signed in 1961 and is a combination of treaties that signatory countries have agreed on.

Antarctica can be used for:

• Peaceful purposes
• Research
• Fishing and tourism in the summer

5 Main acts of the Treaty:

1) Military and nuclear activity in Antarctica is banned.
2) Scientific research is protected and international co-operation between scientists promoted.
3) Rules managing tourist and research activities.
4) Manages sovereignty disputes (soverignty cannot be claimed.)
5) No mining (for 50 years.)

Strategies to mitigate the threats and proote sustainable developmemt:

1) Arctic Treaty System 1959 (prev. card)
2) Convention for the Conservation of Arctic Seals 1972 - Sic species of seal cannot be caught or killed, research of the seals is controlled an must be shared, no.of seals managed.
3) Convention for the conservation of Antarctc Maine Livign Resource 1980 - Est after concerns of krill ctaches increasing and aim is to conserve marine life. 
4) Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources 1988 - Signed by 19 states, but never ratfied so nver came into force. It would have allowed mining under certain controls and taxes.
5) Antarctic Act (UK) 1994 and Anarctic Regulations (UK) 1995 - Implements the Anarctic treaties into UK law and UK citizens require permits from the govt to carry out most activities in Antarctica. 
6) Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Traety (Madrid Protocol) 1998 - Protects the aesthetic and scientific value of the wilderness and bans all activity reating to mineral resources other than scientific research. All activities require environmental assessment  and a Commitee for Enviromental Protection was created. All member states are to be prepared to respond to emergencies anf the ban on mining cannot be repealed without buinding regulations in a future treaty. Finally, Antarctic Specially Protected Areas were established. 

Growing debate of whether the current treaties that protect Antarctica should be adapted/removed to encourage development in Antarctica or whether the Treaties should be maintained in its current form. 

Arguments about  possible developemts in Antarctica:

• Energy and mineral resources elsewhere are becoign depleted - Antarctica is believed to have large reserves of coal and oil, and precious metals such as gold and silver. Mining is however banned until 2048. 
• Tourism numbers visiting Antarctica remain high, with over 27,000in 2008-09, numbers have however fallen since with controls on Cruise Ships in the early 2010s - If tourism was to be encouraged as an economic activity could we envisage Antarctica having a commercial airport, with tourist hotels and shops? The growth of adventure tourism relies on the affluent clientee being able to buy into a unique experience. 
• In some parts of the world commercial fishing is depleting fish stocks to near extinction levels - the waters of the Southern Ocean still have plentiful fish stocks. However if restirctions were lifted, would levels of oversishing quickly reach the same as other areas?
• Bioprospecting is a growing area of scientific research, with many keen to search for genetic and biochemical resources from Antarctica's flora and fauna - Antarctica's biodiveristy is unique and the continent's aniaml and plant life is of interest, because of their unique adaptations to deal with the harsh conditions which may be useful for future valuabl commercial products.