America

Duties on imports of glass, wine, china, lead, paper, paint and tea.

Disliked by the colonies, the Massachusetts Assemblu published a denunciation of the Townshend Duties for violating the concept of 'no taxation without representation'.

The British wouldn't repeal and the New York Asembly, who refused to pay for the quartering of troops, was suspended.

British troops in Boston increased from 1768 to ensure duties were collected. The Sons of Liberty persecuted Agents of the Crown who attempted to collect the duties. 

Repealed (except on tea) on the 5th March

A confrontation in which British soldiers shot and killed several people while being harrassed by a mob in Boston.

The Boston Massacre had a major impact on relations between Britain and the colonists. It further incensed colonists already weary of British rule and unfair taxation and roused them to fight for independence. 

The war of independence was not a forgone conclusion at this point though- paused in 1770 because of:

• British repeal of Townshend Duties
• Loyalists in the colnies
• Lack of unity amongst the colonists

The Tea Act- May 1773:

Boston Tea Party- 16 December 1773:

Intended to isolate Boston and to force the patriots into submission- final nail in the coffin for Anglo-American relations. 

• Closure of the port of Boston from 1 June until the tea was paid for.
• Revising the charter of the colony to allow the governor to appoint and remove most officials.
• Arranging for the transfer of murder trials to England if deemed necessary. 
• Giving more powers to the military commanders to arrange the quartering of troops. 

September 1774:

Representatives of all colonies met in the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. 

A de facto government. 

General Gage knew where rebel weapons were stockpiled and had unsuccessfully attempted to seize munitions from Salem in 1775. 

Goaded by a letter from Lord Dartmouth, Gage attempted a secret mission on 18 April 1775 to Concord to seize and destroy the military store. 

Warned by the radicals, British troops were met by 75 volunteers at Lexington and shots were fired. 

They pushed onto Concord and destroyed the stores but were steadily fired on to Boston and were saved by relief soldiers. 

Total British casualties were 273 and 73 were killed. Boston was soon besieged and surrounded by 20,000 colonial militia. 

Reinforcements arrived in Boston in the shape of generals Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne on 26th May 1775 with a few thousand troops. 

The British attempted a full frontal assault against the rebels (Battle of Bunker Hill) on 17 June. 

More than 1,000 of the 2,500 British were casualties. The Americans lost a fewer than half that number. 

Although the British carried the position, the attrition rate they suffered meant it was not a victory- British were shortly besieged by the new council army under Washington. 

March 1776: forced to evacuate Boston for Nova Scotia. 

George III issued a proclamation on 23 August 1775, declaring all colonies to be in open rebellion. 

Meeting of the second Continental Congress in Philadelphia on 10 May 1775. 1775-1776: dissatisified colonists to American patriots. Immediate necessity- finance and organisation of an army and Congress took 2 decisions in June 1775: they issued paper money to meet the costs of war and made Washington the commander of the Continental Army.

Formal Declaration of Independence took longer because:

• 1. The revolution involved the creation of a new nation and a new system of government, and the patriots undertook their personal journeys towards the intellectual position of support for independence.
• 2. Communication with local committees/assemblies took place constantly- limits on print and transport meant that it took time to reach an agreed resolution. 
• 3. Congress worked to reach a consensus- meant demonstrating to moderates that every effort had been made to reach accomodation with Britain. The Necessity of Taking Up Arms Declaration 6 July 1773 disclaimed any intention of separation from Britain. Olive Branch petition 8 July appealed to George III to cease hostilities. 

Apr-Jul 1776, local assemblies authorised their congressional delegates to declare independence. DoI passed 2 July 1776, 12/13 colonies. Formally adopted 4 July 1776. 

A way of creating a national government unlike the British system. June 1776- committee of 13 to draw up a constitution. 

Not approved by Congress until Nov 1777 and not ratified until 1781 when Maryland agreed. 

Weaknesses:

Strengths:

• Significant military power: 48,647 soldiers in 1775 + German mercenaries- not experienced.
• Royal Navy: 340 ships- blockade, attack, reinforce. 
• Well established economy: most sophisticated methods of public finnce, able to absorb levels of debt. 
• 8 million population, major naval power, strong financial system and previously won 7 years war in 1763

Weaknesses:

• Logistically supplying and maintaining troops: in America, challenging. 
• Hold on colonies was maintained by holding the seaboard garrisioning parts. Armies were then dispatched deeper to pin down the Continental Army. This meant stretching supply liners further and relying on generals being able to pincer the colonials without being separated/defeated.
• British generals suffered from lack of direction from London: committed to chasing and destroying continental reform and risk supply lines. Defensive or offensive. 

Strengths:

• Formation of a nation on democratic principles: ideological dream and developing reality, and the vibrancy of the new state drew neutrals to become patriots, leaving loyalists isolated. Spreading patrionism. 
• Terrain and climate: familiar, helped them inland.
• Washington: formed the Continental Army, realised Britain could only be defeated this way, supported by Congress. 

Weaknesses:

• Newly formed nation with limited economic development: reliant on issuing paper money for currency as Congress had no ability to levy taxes, caused inflation.
• Short of weapons: no manufacturing base. 

September 19th and October 7th, Guerilla warfare. British troops invaded from Canada. 

• September 19th- General Burgoyne wins small but cosltly victory over Gates + Arnold's forces
• October 7th-  Burgoyne attacked with weakened forces, defeated. Surrounded 10 days later. 
• Convinced French to recognise colonist aims and enter as their ally.

• First rebel defeat of the British. 
• Burgoyne- over confident. 
• Poor decisions- baggage train- loyalists vs natives, no coordination with Clinton or Howe.
• Burgoyne had presented a plan to the king in Feb 1777 which was basically to lead a combined force of British soldiers. The plan was not reliant on the forces of Clinton or Howe and so they recieved no orders. 
• Peace negotiated was fairly favourable to the British. Burgoyne's 5,895 troops were to lay down their arms and march to Boston to be embarked on British ships on the condition they don't fight again. 

Benjamin Franklin persuaded France to join: Franklin was a successful ambassador + French reaction to Burgoyne's defeat. France also had a long term rivalry with Britain + regaining territory they lost in 7 years war. 

Treaties signed in Feb 1778- France declared war on Britain in June 1778. Spain entered as an ally of France in June 1779. 

• Significance: Until 1778, 65% of the British army was in North America. By 1780, this had dropped to 20%- troops were required for the defence of Britain against invasion.
• French intervention at Chesapeake Bay under De Grasse was vital in the defeat of the British at Yorktown 1781. 
• By 1781, Spanish forces had cleared all British troops from the Mississippi Valley.

Vital importance: the subsequent redrawing of British priorities. Britain was mobilised against invasion, held its possessions in the West Indies and increased presence in India. 

Concerns to Britain: challenge to imperialistic 'right'. multiple defences to defend, over conflicted, Spain's participation, India/West Indies/Canada to worry about. 

British control in 1781 rested on their ability to control Chesapeake Bay and keep Yorktown linked to New York by sea. 

The defeat at Yorktown was the result of Washington being able to lead an army of 16,000 Americans + French into the peninsula and lay siege to the British for 3 weeks whilst the French controlled the bay. 

Cornwallis surrounded on 19 October 1781. Reinforcements arrived 5 days too late. 

• The population in the South did not prove to be the loyalist stronghold the British hoped for. Victories did not ensure loyalty. 
• Post Charleston and the butchering of American troops, Clinton returned to New York leaving Cornwallis to fight the Southern campaign with 4,000 men. The British were obliged to split forces and weaken their attacking army to ensure that the seabord was held and the ports garrisoned. 
• Southern campaign relied on Britain's ability to hold the ports. 

Yorktown ended the war- political will in London was no longer there. British Commons resolved to end military measures against the Americans in February. Lord North resigned 20 March. 

Peace talks commenced in April under PM Shelburne whose main concern was to split the Americans from their French allies and was therefore prepared to be generous to America. 

The evacuations of British strongholds were ordered and the Peace of Paris was signed by Britain, France, USA, Spain and Holland on 3 September 1783. 

IT INCLUDED...

• The recognition of American independence and its new boundaries.
• Division of imperial possessions between Britain, France and Spain: Britain regained the Bahamas, Spain gained Florida and Minorca, France regained St Lucia, Goree and Pondicherry and retained Tobago, Britain returned Trincomalee to Holland.
• America got better terms- good negotiators and Britain wanted to cement reasonable relations with America. 

Military: lost many soldiers, were a defeated army. 30,000 troops had to return home. 

Economic: national debt was £232 million. Trade was disrupted with Europe and the colonies (not long term though). Remarkable economic resillience. Value of British exports doubled 1783-1792. 

Environmental: Bahamas regained. Negapatam (India) regained. Returned Trincomalee to Holland. 

Religious: N/A

Political: PM Lord North resigned- coalition government formed, new PM- Pitt. Pressure on Parliament by London, no revolution = social cohesion.