Von Reuturn 1862-78 - tax-farming abolished, establishment of banks, subsidies to private railway, trade tariffs lowered, trade-treaties negotiated.
strengths - cotton and mining expanded, agriculture marginally improved.
weakness - transport limited and slow growth.
Vyshnegradsky 1887-92 - import tariffs raised 30% to encourage home production, grain exports introduced, loans from abroad.
Results - grain exports increased 18 per cents and budget surplus, peasants suffered heavy taxation, famine 1891-92 killed 350,000.
Witte 1892-1903 - additional loans from abroad, rouble gold standard, investment in mining, oil and banking, huge expansion on railway.
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