Agression
A2 psychology revision
- Created by: Maisie
- Created on: 16-06-11 17:17
Social Learning Theory
Bandura et al: bobo doll studies
1) imitation via direct observation - 70% in non-aggressive/control groups had 0 ratings of aggression - aggressive cond. showed great deal of physical & verbal aggression
2) imitation via film - model reward/no consequence cond. = significantly more imitative than model punished cond. - when offered personal reward ALL 3 groups performed behaviours
+ Hicks: found 40% of acts displayed by models could be reproduced 8 months later
+ Real world applications: aggressive films - high ecological validity
- Bobo doll fit for purpose: operationalisation of aggression
- Role model used: children more likely to observe peers acting aggressively towards toys
- Generalisability: can we conclude adults act in the same way?
- Environmental determinism
- Reductionist
Cultural Transmission of SLT
Mead: cultural differences in levels of aggression supports SLT - different role models showing different behaviours
Patterson et al: learning of aggression within the family relies on imitation of role models/parents behaviour - therefore in different cultures, where aggression isn't valued, it cannot be observed or imitated!
Aggression is rare in some cultures - not valued & children not punished in the same ways (direct & vacarious reinforcement minimised)
Deindividuation
Diener et al: trick or treat study - non-identifiable children more likely to steal in groups (anti-social behaviour)
Dodd: what would you do if your actions had no consequences? - 36% of prisoners answered with something anti-social - same % as rest of population
Prentice-Dunn & Rogers: through deindividuation we lose both our public & private self-awareness = loss of normal inhibitions
Zimbardo: argues deindividuated behaviour is a primitive urge to act outside social norms -> prison study - guards deindividuated with uniform & sunglasses - became very aggressive
Milgram-like shocks: pps who were unidentifiable shocked more readily
Rhem et al: handball study - children in uniform acted more aggressively
Gergen, Gergen & Barton: darkened room arousal study - deindividuation doesn't necessarily lead to aggression
Watson: cross cultural variation - societies who changed appearance in war = more likely to kill, torture & mutilate victims
Institutional Aggression - Situational Models
1. Deprivation Theory
Sykes: prison subculture eminates from within the institution
Outlined 5 deprivations: 1) deprivation of liberty, 2) deprivation of autonomy, 3) deprivation of goods & services, 4) deprivation of heterosexual relationships, 5) deprivation of security
Cheeseman: in a prison environment, there is a lack of real purpose/goals except to reduce stress = aggression!
2. Popcorn Model - Folger & Skarlicki
1st person to act aggressively is like 1st piece of corn to pop - therefore should concentrate on what factors cause 'heat' to be applied in first place (e.g. deprivations)
Even prisoners who don't bring values of aggression can act aggressively with enough 'heat'
+ Suggests ways of reducing aggression
- Individual differences not considered
- Environmental determinism
Institutional Aggression - Importation Model
Prisoners bring a 'ready made' way of behaving to the prison environment
Alcohol addiction: 1 of attributes that contributes to institutional aggression - Mills et al: higher levels of alcohol dependence = more 'severe institutional misconduct'
Race & age: evidence from USA that non-white & younger inmates are more aggressive - Kane & Janus: these inmates often live in a subculture where aggression is valued, resepcted & reinforced -> disenfranchised
Irwin & Cressey: identified 3 prison subcultures: 1) criminal/thief subculture - who conform to thief career attitudes, 2) convict subculture - who have spent majority of life in prison-system, 3) conventional/'straight' subculture - 1 time offenders
+ Delissi et al: gang membership outside prison & institutional aggression positively correlated
+ Poole & Regoli: pre-institutional aggression a good predictor of aggression in prison
- How can we manage institutional aggression? - attributed to factors beyond control of prison
Brain Structure - Amygdala
Kleuver-Bucy syndrome - taming effect in rhesus monkeys when temporal lobes removed (amygdala destroyed)
Narabyashi et al: 43 out of 51 patients whose amygdala was destroyed through psychosurgery showed reduced aggression
Mark & Ervin: case study of female patient - electrical stimulations of amygdala = facial grimacing & flinging herself against wall
Ashford: temporal lobe epileptics often become very aggressive
Wong et al: criminals with violent tendencies had reduced size amygdala
Van Elst et al: aggressive patients with temporal lobe epilepsy had reduced size amygdala
- Muller et al: male psychopaths & male controls showed increased activity in amygdala when shown a series of positive/negative images
Brain Structure - Prefrontal Cortex
Regulates emotional responses driven by the amygdala - damage results in impulsivity, immaturity & loss of control
Anderson et al: damage during infancy related to aggressive behaviour as adults
Raine et al: found reduced glucose metabolism in prefrontal cortex of murderers
Volkrow et al: violent psychiatric patients had reduced blood flow to prefrontal cortex
Phineas Gage Case Study: 'no longer Gage' - effects on personality
Neurotransmitters
Serotonin
Thought to inhibit aggressive responses - low levels associated with increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression & violent suicide
Mann et al: drugs which reduced serotonin increased meaures of hostility & aggression in males (hostile aggression - what about other types?)
Bond: anti-depressants reduce aggression (work by increasing serotonin levels)
Scerbo & Raine: meta-analysis supports low level of serotonin idea
- Lenard: serotonin not only linked with aggression
Dopamine
Link less well established (not supported by Scerbo & Raine's meta-analysis)
Lavine: amphetamines increase aggression, Buitelaar: anti-psychotics reduce aggression
- Couppis & Kennedy: dopamine reinforces aggression through reward pathways - not cause!
Hormones
Testosterone thought to act on areas of the brain which control aggression from young adulthood & also thought to be primary biochemical influence on aggression
Dabbs et al: salivary testosterone levels able to distinguish between violent & non-violent crimes
Lindman et al: aggressive behaviour in drunk males positively correlated with testosterone levels
Wagner et al: castrated male mice = decreased aggression (increased when given testosterone again)
Wingfield et al: testosterone levels rise in monogamous species in response to social challenges
- Archer & Book et al: didn't find same link in meta-analyses
- Gender bias: Archer et al - high testosterone in women = high occupational status (aggressive?!)
Cortisol mediates other hormones (high levels inhibit testosterone)
Virkuunen: low levels of cortisol in habitual violent offenders
Tennes & Kreye: found same link in schoolchildren
Genetics
Twin studies mostly focused on criminal behaviour
Coccaro: aggressive behaviour in adult twin pairs - 50% variance in direct aggression attributed to genetics
Adoption studies
Hutchings & Mednick: over 14,000 adoptions & criminal convictions - sig. no. of boys w/ convictions had biological parents with criminal convictions
MAOA gene responsible for producing monoamine oxidase - regulates metabolism of serotonin
Brunner et al: Dutch family case study - many male members involved in serious crimes of violence has abnormally low levels (defect later identified)
Genes & environment interaction
Caspi et al: males with variant associated with low levels of MAOA = sig. more likely to exhibit anti-social behaviour if maltreated
Brennan: genetic influences significant in property crime - biological & adoptive parents important
Infidelity & Jealousy
Davy & Wilson: claim men, in particular, have evolved a no. of mate-retention strategies that deter mates from leaving or committing adultery
Retaining a mate = important due to chance of passing on genes - mate-retention strategies enhance reproductive fitness
Cuckoldry: women deceives partner into investing in offspring conceived with another man - cuckolded men lose both invested resources & reproductive opportunity (Shackelford)
Shackelford et al: 2 independent studies of men & women in committed, heterosexual relationships
- found males use of 2 broad mate-retention strategies (intersexual negative inducements & 'direct guarding') to be correlated with violence
- men who consistently used emotional manipulation were also more prone to using violence
+ Real world applications - could help friends & family recognise signs of violent realtionships
- Gender bias: can this explain female aggression/violence?
Group Display of Aggression
Freud: the mind-set of an individual in a crowd differs - merging of minds reduces normal inhibitions
Contagion Theory: Le Bon - atmosphere of group causes contagion - group memebers are suggestible which, combined with anonymity = irrational, emotional or 'mob' behaviour
Deindividuation: losing sense of idenityt from being in large group, also results in gaining social identity of group -> anonymity, diffusion of responsibility, group size most important factors
Emergent-Norm Theory: Turner & Killian - crowd behaviour is 'normless' - group looks to others & base behaviour on theirs (compliant & motivated by seeking approval) - crowds are a logically thinking mass of individuals: behaviour not irrational or predictable
Social Identity Theory: Reicher - group behaviour involves inter-group behaviour - people don't lose identity but assume shared identity that promotes belonging & purpose (in absence of direct confrontation, there is often a symbolic confrontation - e.g. riots in St.Pauls directed at symbols of government)
Lynch Mobs: Mydral - suggests fundamental cause is fear, Patterson: lynch mobs were more active during end of C19th due to major social transition - entire community at risk, Blalock: power-threat hypothesis - groups who pose threat to majority more likely to be discriminated
Xenophobia: MacDonald - overperception of threat less costly - part of natural selection
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