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Similarities
- Individualism: belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any social group or collective body. Both classical and modern liberals endorse individualism.
- Equality: the principle that human beings are of identical worth/are entitled to be treated in the same way - this can have widely differing applications. liberals place considerable emphasis on this, particularly foundational (humans are born equal with equal moral worth) and formal (individuals share the same formal status within society) equality - most important forms of formal equality are legal (emphasising 'equality before the law' and insists that all non-legal factors be strictly irrelevant to the process of legal decision making) and political equality (embodied in the idea of 'one person, one vote; one vote; one value', and underpins liberal commitment to democracy). All liberals oppose equality of outcome (reward based on the value of each person's contribution). Liberals are difference-blind, as they disapprove of any social privileges or advantages enjoyed by one group and not another on the basis of 'irrational' factors such as race, gender, colour, creed, religion or social background.
- Justice: a moral standard of fairness and impartiality; social justice is the notion of a fair / justifiable distribution of wealth and rewards in society. (see equality)
- Toleration: forbearance; a willingness to accept views or actions with which one is in disagreement. Liberal commitment to toleration is embodied in the quote by Locke: "I detest what you say but will defend to the death your right to say it". defence for toleration first emerged in the 17th century to defend religious freedom - Locke argued that, since the proper function of government is to protect life, liberty and property, it has no right to meddle in "the care of men's souls" - toleration should be extended to all matters regarded as 'private' on the grounds that, like religion, they concern moral questions best left to the individual. Toleration necessary to ensure vigour and health of society as a whole - only within a free market of ideas will 'truth' emerge, as good ideas displace bad ones and ignorance is progressively banished (contest debate and argument, the fruit of diversity, are therefore the motor of social progress). It is also believed that toleration and diversity is linked to the liberal belief in a balanced society - although individuals and social groups pursue very different interests, liberals hold that there is a deeper harmony or balance among these competing interests (i.e. interest of workers and employers differ - workers want better pay, shorter hours and improved working conditions, while employers wish to increase their profits by keeping production costs, including wages low. however, competing interests complement each other: workers need jobs and employers need labour) - basically individuals may pursue self-interest, but a natural equilibrium will tend to assert itself.
- Freedom/Liberty: the ability to think and act as one wishes, a capacity that can be associated with the individual, a social group or a nation. Both strands agree that humans should have the ability to achieve their full potential, however there is disagreement between the strands regarding the best way for this to be achieved. they also agree that humans should have the maximum liberty before it becomes license.
- The State: an association that establishes sovereign power within a defined territorial area, usually possessing a monopoly of coercive power. Liberals agree that the state should be limited through constitutionalism (government carried out by a defined set of laws and regulations), and any power should be granted by the public through social contract, which states that citizens agree to give up their liberty to an extent in return for protection from the state, which can be dissolved as soon as the citizens lose support for it. the state has two main functions - to maintain domestic order and protect from attack/invasion.
- Human Nature and Society: agree that humans are rationally self-interested creatures, with a capacity for self-reliance. society is atomistic, composed of a collection of largely self-sufficient individuals and the characteristics of society can be traced back to more fundamental features of human nature.
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Differences
- Individualism: belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any social group or collective body. classical liberals subscribe to egoistical individualism, which places emphasis on self-interestedness and self-reliance. modern liberals endorse developmental individualism, which prioritises human flourishing over the quest for interest satisfaction.
- Equality: the principle that human beings are of identical worth/are entitled to be treated in the same way - this can have widely differing implications. Classical and modern liberals disagree regarding the implications of equality of outcome (all individuals are entitled to equal chances to make the best of their abilities - there should be no artificial barriers to progress). Classical liberals believe that free market economy guarantees equality of opportunity, as well as believes there are benefits in the resulting social inequality (provides economic incentive and thus bringing benefit to all). Modern liberals favour intervention through welfare and redistribution (narrows social equalities thereby linking equality of opportunity to a greater measure of equality of outcome). According to Rawls, social inequality was only justified if it worked to the advantage of the least well off.
- Justice: a moral standard of fairness and impartiality; social justice is the notion of a fair / justifiable distribution of wealth and rewards in society. (see equality)
- Freedom/Liberty: the ability to think and act as one wishes, a capacity that can be associated with the individual, a social group or a nation. Classical liberals endorse negative freedom - humans are free so far as they are left alone / there is an absence of external restraint on the individual (the threat to liberty is a tyrannical state). Modern liberal endorse positive freedom - liberty can be threatened by social disadvantage; ability to develop and attain individuality - people can realise potential, attain skills and achieve fulfilment.
- The State: an association that established sovereign power within a defined territorial area, usually possessing a monopoly of coercive power. disagreement between the to strands regarding the role/power of the state. Classical Liberalism - at best a 'necessary evil' (Thomas Paine) - at the very least it lays down conditions for orderly existence. believes in nightwatchman state with limited powers. Modern Liberalism - minimal state is incapable of rectifying injustice and inequality of civil society and are thus prepared to advocate development of an enabling, welfare state.
- Human Nature and Society: Modern liberals believe that people have sympathy for one another - egoism is constrained by altruism. person has social responsibility linking them to others through caring and empathy
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