Demography
- Created by: chinwe
- Created on: 18-04-15 11:00
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- Topic 4- Demography
- Births
- The total fertility rate
- TFR is the average number of children women have during their fertile years
- Factors affecting the total fertility rate are; 1) The proportion of women who are of childbearing age(15-44) 2) How fertile the women is- that is how many children they have
- The UK TFR has risen since 2001
- The changes in fertility rates and birth rates reflect that:
- - Women are remaining childless than in the past
- - Women are postponing having children. The average age for giving birth is now 29.6
- Reasons for the decline in the birth rate
- 1) Changes in the position of women
- - Legal equality with men including the right to vote.
- - Increased education opportunities. Girls do better than boys
- - More women in paid employment
- - Easier access to divorce.
- - Changes in attitudes to family life and women's roles
- Access to abortion and reliable contraception
- 2) Decline in the infant mortality rate
- Infant mortality rate (IMR) measures the number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive, per year
- Sociologists argue that a fall in the MRI leads to a fall in the birth rate
- During the first half of the 20th century, the UK's MRI began to fall. This was due to several reasons;
- - Improved housing and better sanitation
- - Better nutrition, including the mothers
- - Better knowledge of hygiene, child care and welfare, often spread through women magazines
- - A fall in the number of married women working
- - Improved services for women and children, such as postnatal clinics
- 3) Children have become an economic liability
- Since the late 19th century children have become an economic liability:
- - Laws; Banning child labour, introducing compulsory schooling and raising the school leaving age, meaning that children remain economically dependent on their parents for longer
- - Changing norms about what children have the right to expect from their parents in material terms
- Since the late 19th century children have become an economic liability:
- 4) Child centerdness
- Increasing child centredness in the family and society means that childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period.
- This has encouraged a shift from 'quality' to 'quantity'
- Parents now have fewer children and lavish more attention and resources on these few
- This has encouraged a shift from 'quality' to 'quantity'
- Increasing child centredness in the family and society means that childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period.
- 1) Changes in the position of women
- Effects of changes in fertility
- The family
- Smaller families means that women are more likely to go out to work
- thus creating the dual earner couple
- Smaller families means that women are more likely to go out to work
- The dependency ratio
- The relationship between the size of the working population and the non-working population.
- children make up a large part of the dependency population
- A fall the number of children reduces the 'burden of dependency' on the working population
- Public services and policies
- Lower birth rates ma mean that fewer services are needed
- E.g fewer schools, maternity and child health services
- Lower birth rates ma mean that fewer services are needed
- The family
- The total fertility rate
- Deaths
- Reasons for the decline in death rate
- There are several reasons for the decline in death rate during the 20th century:
- Improved nutrition
- Thomas Mckeown(1972) argues that the improved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates
- Better nutrition increased resistance to infection and increased the survival chances of those who were infected
- Thomas Mckeown(1972) argues that the improved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates
- Medical improvements
- After the 1950s improved medical knowledge helped reduce death rates
- Advances included the introduction of antibiotics widespread immunisation, blood transfusion, higher standards of midwifery and maternity services
- After the 1950s improved medical knowledge helped reduce death rates
- Public heath measures and environmental improvements
- In the 20th century, more effective local and central government led to a range of improvements in public health and he quality of the environment
- Improvements included; improvements in housing, purer drinking water, the pasteurisation of milk, and improved sewage disposal methods
- The clean air act reduced air pollution, such as smog in 1952
- In the 20th century, more effective local and central government led to a range of improvements in public health and he quality of the environment
- Other social changes
- Smaller families decreased the rate of transmission of infection
- Greater public knowledge of the causes of illness
- Higher incomes, allowing for a healthier lfestyle
- Improved nutrition
- There are several reasons for the decline in death rate during the 20th century:
- Life expectancy
- As death rates have fallen, so has life expectancy
- Males born in England 1900 were expected to live to 50 years
- Males born in England 2003-5 can expect to live to 76.9 years
- Males born in England 1900 were expected to live to 50 years
- One reason for lower life expectancy in 1900 is the fact that so many children did not survive beyond the early years of life.
- Class gender and regional differences
- Those living in the North have a lower life expectancy than those living in the South
- Working-class men in unskilled jobs are nearly 3 times likely to die before the age of 65, compared to men who are in managerial and professional jobs
- Women generally live longer than men
- As death rates have fallen, so has life expectancy
- The ageing population
- The average age of the UK population is rising
- In 1971 it was 34.1 years. By 2031, it is projected to reach 42.6 yearas
- The ageing of the population is due to several factors;
- - Increasing life expectancy- people are living longer into old age.
- Decline in infant mortality, so that now hardly anyone dies early in life
- Decline in fertility- fewer young people are being produced in relation to the number of older people in the population
- The average age of the UK population is rising
- Effects of an ageing population
- Public services
- Older people consume a larger proportion of services such as health and social care than other age groups.
- The dependency ratio
- One-person pensioner households
- The social construction of ageing as a 'problem'
- The age statuses are being socially constructed
- Policy implications
- Public services
- Reasons for the decline in death rate
- Births
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