Research Methods 1 revision

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  • Created by: Bambih369
  • Created on: 22-03-21 07:56
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  • Research Methods 1
    • Quantitative Research
      • Hypothesis Testing
        • Null hypothesis
          • = No difference will occur
        • Alternate hypothesis
          • = A difference will occur
          • Directional (One-tailed)
            • Prior research
          • Non-directional (Two-tailed)
            • No prior research
      • Evaluating Research
        • Practice effects
          • 1. Between-subjects design
        • Situational variables
          • Think more carefully about the design of the study
        • Demand characteristics
          • 1. Between-subjects design             2. Deception
        • Individual differences
          • 1. Randomly alloacte           2. Within-subjects design
        • Boredom/tired
          • 1. Counterbalance                    2. Rest breaks             3. Between-subjects design
        • Floor and ceiling effects
          • 1. Use a pilot study
      • Types of studies
          • Cross-sectional
            • Looks at correlational data - Predictor and outcome varibales
          • Experiments
            • Explore causal relationships with and IV an DV
          • Quasi-experiments
            • The researcher cannot randomly allocate pts to the IV
      • Sampling
        • Random sampling
          • Stratified sample (The population is divided into groups and a simple sample conducted on each)
          • Simple random sample (Everyone has an equal chance of being picked)
        • Non-random sampling
          • Voluntary sample (Members self-select themselves)
          • Convenience sample (Researchers ask easy to reach members of the population)
      • Validity/Reliability
        • Validity
          • The extent to which your study measures what it intended to measure
          • Concurrent:      Do scores correlate with other measures taken at the same time?
          • Construct:        Does the test measure the construct it was designed to measure?
          • Predictive:        Can test scores be used to predict events?
          • Ecological:       The extent to which the experiment reflects the real world
          • Face:          Do items on a test appear to measure what they said they would?
        • Reliability
          • Internal reliability
            • Is the test consistent within itself?
            • Test using the split-half method or Cronbach's alpha
          • External reliability
            • Relates to the consistency of a test over time
            • Test using Test-retest reliability (Assess the correlation between scores taken at time of the same sample)
          • The extent to which your measure produces consistent results
      • Effect Size
        • A measurement of the magnitude of the effect
        • Effect size = (Mean of cond. 1 - Mean of cond.2) / Pooled SD of both
      • Experimental Design
        • Within Groups
          • Limitations:      1. Boredom 2. Carry-over effects
          • Compare the same participants in different conditions
          • Advantages: 1. No individual differences   2. Less pts needed
        • Between Groups
          • Compare different participants in different conditions
          • Advantages: 1. No carry-over effects, 2. Quicker process for pts
          • Limitations:  1. Individual differences   2. Twice the number of pts needed
      • Variables
        • Extraneous
          • Variables that potentially affect the relationship between IV and DV
        • Dependent
          • The variable measured
        • Confounding
          • Variables that differ systematically with the IV
            • Prevent:              1. Match conditions       2. Standardise the procedure       3. Randomise the sample
        • Independent
          • The variable manipulated by the researcher
        • Control
          • The condition where the IV is absent
    • Writing Reports
      • Structuring sections
        • 3.Introduction: Overview of topic + aims + hypothesis
        • 2.Abstract
        • 1.Title
        • 4.Method: Design + pts + materials + procedure
        • 5.Results: no raw data + no rationale
        • 6.Discussion: summarise key findings + interpret results
        • 7.References
        • 8. Appendices
      • Extracting Key info from a report
        • Introduction = background info
        • Method = Design
        • Discussion = future research
      • Referencing
        • Journal article example:
          • Surname, Initials. (Year). Title. Title of the journal, Volume(Issue). DOI
        • Important to acknowledge the author to avoid plagiarism and give credibility top work
    • Choosing Research Design
      • Selecting research designs to suit hypothesis
        • Psychological investigations
          • Experiments (Cause + Effect)
          • Observations (Initial investigations)
            • Structured (Researchers observe predetermined behaviours)
              • Advantages: 1.Quantitative data             2. Objective 3. Observer consistency
              • Limitations:       1. May miss details
            • Unstructured (Researchers record behaviour they see and monitor phenomena)
              • Limitations:   1. Subjective
              • Advantages: 1. Qualitative data               2. Rich + detailed
          • Qualitative (In-depth understanding)
          • Cross-sectional (Relationships)
            • Usually consistes of questionnaires and gives rise to correlational data
            • Advantages: 1.Naturalistic 2. Ask lots of Q's 3.Investigate many topics  4.Measure many variables at once
            • Limitations:   1. People may lie          2. Cannot infer causality
        • Longitudinal studies
          • Repeated observations over an extended period of time
        • Advanced experimental design
          • More than 1 IV + Factorial + Explore how variables interact
    • Ethics
      • Ethical requirements
        • Informed consent
          • Participant information screen with the study's aims and contact details
        • Deception
          • Only use when necessary and explain as soon as possible
        • Protection
          • Put in place resources for support and make explicit any potential harm
        • Debriefing
          • End of study + tell true aims
      • Principles
        • Respect
        • Competence
        • Responsibility
        • Integrity
    • Qualitative research
      • Methods of data collection
        • Ethnography
          • Immersion in a particular group  + Observe behaviour
          • Issues:         1. Gaining access           2. Structured or unstructured? 3. Video record?
        • Meta data
          • Newspaper, Tv programmes, Radio programmes
        • Diaries + documentaires
          • Diaries often used in health psychology
        • Internet-mediated research
          • Publicly available research
          • Best to ask for consent
        • Naturally occuring data
          • Produced without the intervention of a researcher
      • Approaches to qual research
        • Outsiders
          • Researchers do not share similar backgrounds
          • Advantages: 1. Make conclusions insiders could not
          • Limitations: 1. Unable to understand experiences 2. Miss contextual aspects
        • Insiders
          • Researchers who share similar backgrounds to the group being studied
          • Advantages: 1. Greater understanding of issues and more ethically aware
          • Limitations:  1. Lack critical distance       2. Pts may treat you as a friend
      • Interviews and Focus groups
        • Semi-structured interviews
          • Most widely used in qualitative research
          • Issues to consider
            • 1. What Q's to ask to answer Research Q? 2. Who + how to recruit? 3.Where to interview 4.How to record?         5. How to transcribe?
        • Interview schedule: Guides the interview + Forces the researcher to think of potential problems
        • Types of questions:
          • Q's to avoid
            • Closed questions + 2 in 1 questions + value laden questions + jargon
          • Structural (How the pts organizes knowledge)
          • Probing (Explain more)
          • Evaluative (Feelings towards something)
          • Contrast (Pts make comparisons between events and experience)
          • Descriptive (Pts provide an account)
        • Focus groups
          • 4-8 pts recruited under some remit
          • Informal group discussions that are focused
          • Issues: How many pts?, Session prep, Ethics
      • Advantages
        • 1. Can answer 'how' and 'why'  2.Help make sense of patterns        3. Can help generate theories
      • Thematic Analysis
        • 'Method for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns in data'.
        • Inductive
          • Data driven
          • Bottom up
          • No pre-existing coding frames
        • Theoretical
          • Interest driven
          • Top down
          • Rich descriptive data
        • Thematic Analysis steps:
          • 1. Transcription of data
          • 2. Make notes of 1st impressions
          • 3. Initial coding of data
          • 4. Gradually move from descriptive to conceptual themes
      • What is qualitative data?
        • Focuses on the smaller picture + gains rich descriptive data of possible explanations of people's meaning making
    • Measuring people
      • Different measures
        • Reaction Time
          • Stimulus, perception, processing, produce response, response
          • Provides an indirect measure of mental processes
          • Types of RT:
            • Simple choice RT: 1 stimulus, 1 type of response
            • Choice RT: 1+ stimulus, each with its own response
            • Discriminant RT: 1+ stimulus, pts only respond to 1
        • Positron emission tomography (PET)
          • Uptake of glucose greater in active areas of brain
            • A radioactive substance injected into  bloodstream
              • Active cells take up substance more readily
          • Evaluation: +Creates high spatial resolution images            -Poor temporal resolution        - Individual exposed to radiation
        • Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
          • Active brain regions require more oxygen so blood flow increases
            • Oxygenated blood produces a different signal to deoxygenated blood
          • Evaluation: +Nothing injected into pts                + Better spatial resolution        - Poor temporal resolution
        • Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
          • Used to establish cause and effect. A magnetic filed applied to scalp, inhibiting neurons below
        • Electroencephalography (EEG)
          • Measures brain's electrical activity. Electrodes attracted to scalp. Different waveforms produced reflect different functional states of the brain
        • Event related potentials
          • Interested in EEG waves in response to pschological events
          • Peaks observed in ERP
          • Evaluation:   + Excellent temporal resolution        - Poor spatial resolution
        • Test items
          • Items take the form of closed Q's or statements
          • Psychological scales provide quantitative data
        • Response biases
          • Acquiescence bias
            • Tendency to respond positively to all items
          • Response bias
            • Tendency to give the dame response to all items
    • Philosophy, Science, & Open Science
      • Publication bias
        • Exaggeration
        • Post-hoc
        • P-value fishing
        • Outliers
        • Non-publication
      • Open science
        • A movement to make parts of the research openly available
        • Sharing prevents making up theory to explain data, and allows comparisons of data with other datasets
      • Confirmatory vs exploratory analysis
        • Confirmatory - Rationale and hypothesis known in advance
        • Exploratory - Not sure what you are going to do or expect
      • Philosophy of science
        • Science: 'A systematic enterprise that builds knowledge in testable explanations'.
        • The scientific methods: 1. Create hypothesis 2. Test hypothesis w./ observations 3. Accept/refute hypothesis 4. Integrate findings into theory
        • When designing study, eliminate bias
      • Replication
        • Attempt to replicate a study and produce the same finding
        • Fundamental principle of scientific developments
        • Replication studies are relatively harder to publish
      • Parsimony & Paradigm shifts
        • Parsimony = 'Preference for the simplest theory'.
        • If the theory doesnt capture data, there is an infinite number of 'add-ons'.
        • Paradigm = 'A typical example/pattern of something.'
          • In a field of enquiry, a dominant way of doing + thinking about wat is being explored, occurs.
      • Falsification
        • Falsification : 'You can only prove that a prediction of a theory is false, not true.'
        • For a theory to be scientific:       - logically coherent         - Testable via experience    -Parsimonious - Components of theory must reflect real experience
        • Why do we need theories?
          • Can't describe a notion unless a theory of underlying process is present
          • A theory that explains certain data is unsolvable
          • Can have alternative models that describe data
          • Theories allow us to make predictions or account for data
      • Psychology as a science
        • Psychology is amde up of many different approaches
        • Quantitative And qualitative methodologies

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