Research Methods 1 revision
- Created by: Bambih369
- Created on: 22-03-21 07:56
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- Research Methods 1
- Quantitative Research
- Hypothesis Testing
- Null hypothesis
- = No difference will occur
- Alternate hypothesis
- = A difference will occur
- Directional (One-tailed)
- Prior research
- Non-directional (Two-tailed)
- No prior research
- Null hypothesis
- Evaluating Research
- Practice effects
- 1. Between-subjects design
- Situational variables
- Think more carefully about the design of the study
- Demand characteristics
- 1. Between-subjects design 2. Deception
- Individual differences
- 1. Randomly alloacte 2. Within-subjects design
- Boredom/tired
- 1. Counterbalance 2. Rest breaks 3. Between-subjects design
- Floor and ceiling effects
- 1. Use a pilot study
- Practice effects
- Types of studies
- Cross-sectional
- Looks at correlational data - Predictor and outcome varibales
- Experiments
- Explore causal relationships with and IV an DV
- Quasi-experiments
- The researcher cannot randomly allocate pts to the IV
- Cross-sectional
- Sampling
- Random sampling
- Stratified sample (The population is divided into groups and a simple sample conducted on each)
- Simple random sample (Everyone has an equal chance of being picked)
- Non-random sampling
- Voluntary sample (Members self-select themselves)
- Convenience sample (Researchers ask easy to reach members of the population)
- Random sampling
- Validity/Reliability
- Validity
- The extent to which your study measures what it intended to measure
- Concurrent: Do scores correlate with other measures taken at the same time?
- Construct: Does the test measure the construct it was designed to measure?
- Predictive: Can test scores be used to predict events?
- Ecological: The extent to which the experiment reflects the real world
- Face: Do items on a test appear to measure what they said they would?
- Reliability
- Internal reliability
- Is the test consistent within itself?
- Test using the split-half method or Cronbach's alpha
- External reliability
- Relates to the consistency of a test over time
- Test using Test-retest reliability (Assess the correlation between scores taken at time of the same sample)
- The extent to which your measure produces consistent results
- Internal reliability
- Validity
- Effect Size
- A measurement of the magnitude of the effect
- Effect size = (Mean of cond. 1 - Mean of cond.2) / Pooled SD of both
- Experimental Design
- Within Groups
- Limitations: 1. Boredom 2. Carry-over effects
- Compare the same participants in different conditions
- Advantages: 1. No individual differences 2. Less pts needed
- Between Groups
- Compare different participants in different conditions
- Advantages: 1. No carry-over effects, 2. Quicker process for pts
- Limitations: 1. Individual differences 2. Twice the number of pts needed
- Within Groups
- Variables
- Extraneous
- Variables that potentially affect the relationship between IV and DV
- Dependent
- The variable measured
- Confounding
- Variables that differ systematically with the IV
- Prevent: 1. Match conditions 2. Standardise the procedure 3. Randomise the sample
- Variables that differ systematically with the IV
- Independent
- The variable manipulated by the researcher
- Control
- The condition where the IV is absent
- Extraneous
- Hypothesis Testing
- Writing Reports
- Structuring sections
- 3.Introduction: Overview of topic + aims + hypothesis
- 2.Abstract
- 1.Title
- 4.Method: Design + pts + materials + procedure
- 5.Results: no raw data + no rationale
- 6.Discussion: summarise key findings + interpret results
- 7.References
- 8. Appendices
- Extracting Key info from a report
- Introduction = background info
- Method = Design
- Discussion = future research
- Referencing
- Journal article example:
- Surname, Initials. (Year). Title. Title of the journal, Volume(Issue). DOI
- Important to acknowledge the author to avoid plagiarism and give credibility top work
- Journal article example:
- Structuring sections
- Choosing Research Design
- Selecting research designs to suit hypothesis
- Psychological investigations
- Experiments (Cause + Effect)
- Observations (Initial investigations)
- Structured (Researchers observe predetermined behaviours)
- Advantages: 1.Quantitative data 2. Objective 3. Observer consistency
- Limitations: 1. May miss details
- Unstructured (Researchers record behaviour they see and monitor phenomena)
- Limitations: 1. Subjective
- Advantages: 1. Qualitative data 2. Rich + detailed
- Structured (Researchers observe predetermined behaviours)
- Qualitative (In-depth understanding)
- Cross-sectional (Relationships)
- Usually consistes of questionnaires and gives rise to correlational data
- Advantages: 1.Naturalistic 2. Ask lots of Q's 3.Investigate many topics 4.Measure many variables at once
- Limitations: 1. People may lie 2. Cannot infer causality
- Longitudinal studies
- Repeated observations over an extended period of time
- Advanced experimental design
- More than 1 IV + Factorial + Explore how variables interact
- Psychological investigations
- Selecting research designs to suit hypothesis
- Ethics
- Ethical requirements
- Informed consent
- Participant information screen with the study's aims and contact details
- Deception
- Only use when necessary and explain as soon as possible
- Protection
- Put in place resources for support and make explicit any potential harm
- Debriefing
- End of study + tell true aims
- Informed consent
- Principles
- Respect
- Competence
- Responsibility
- Integrity
- Ethical requirements
- Qualitative research
- Methods of data collection
- Ethnography
- Immersion in a particular group + Observe behaviour
- Issues: 1. Gaining access 2. Structured or unstructured? 3. Video record?
- Meta data
- Newspaper, Tv programmes, Radio programmes
- Diaries + documentaires
- Diaries often used in health psychology
- Internet-mediated research
- Publicly available research
- Best to ask for consent
- Naturally occuring data
- Produced without the intervention of a researcher
- Ethnography
- Approaches to qual research
- Outsiders
- Researchers do not share similar backgrounds
- Advantages: 1. Make conclusions insiders could not
- Limitations: 1. Unable to understand experiences 2. Miss contextual aspects
- Insiders
- Researchers who share similar backgrounds to the group being studied
- Advantages: 1. Greater understanding of issues and more ethically aware
- Limitations: 1. Lack critical distance 2. Pts may treat you as a friend
- Outsiders
- Interviews and Focus groups
- Semi-structured interviews
- Most widely used in qualitative research
- Issues to consider
- 1. What Q's to ask to answer Research Q? 2. Who + how to recruit? 3.Where to interview 4.How to record? 5. How to transcribe?
- Interview schedule: Guides the interview + Forces the researcher to think of potential problems
- Types of questions:
- Q's to avoid
- Closed questions + 2 in 1 questions + value laden questions + jargon
- Structural (How the pts organizes knowledge)
- Probing (Explain more)
- Evaluative (Feelings towards something)
- Contrast (Pts make comparisons between events and experience)
- Descriptive (Pts provide an account)
- Q's to avoid
- Focus groups
- 4-8 pts recruited under some remit
- Informal group discussions that are focused
- Issues: How many pts?, Session prep, Ethics
- Semi-structured interviews
- Advantages
- 1. Can answer 'how' and 'why' 2.Help make sense of patterns 3. Can help generate theories
- Thematic Analysis
- 'Method for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns in data'.
- Inductive
- Data driven
- Bottom up
- No pre-existing coding frames
- Theoretical
- Interest driven
- Top down
- Rich descriptive data
- Thematic Analysis steps:
- 1. Transcription of data
- 2. Make notes of 1st impressions
- 3. Initial coding of data
- 4. Gradually move from descriptive to conceptual themes
- What is qualitative data?
- Focuses on the smaller picture + gains rich descriptive data of possible explanations of people's meaning making
- Methods of data collection
- Measuring people
- Different measures
- Reaction Time
- Stimulus, perception, processing, produce response, response
- Provides an indirect measure of mental processes
- Types of RT:
- Simple choice RT: 1 stimulus, 1 type of response
- Choice RT: 1+ stimulus, each with its own response
- Discriminant RT: 1+ stimulus, pts only respond to 1
- Positron emission tomography (PET)
- Uptake of glucose greater in active areas of brain
- A radioactive substance injected into bloodstream
- Active cells take up substance more readily
- A radioactive substance injected into bloodstream
- Evaluation: +Creates high spatial resolution images -Poor temporal resolution - Individual exposed to radiation
- Uptake of glucose greater in active areas of brain
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
- Active brain regions require more oxygen so blood flow increases
- Oxygenated blood produces a different signal to deoxygenated blood
- Evaluation: +Nothing injected into pts + Better spatial resolution - Poor temporal resolution
- Active brain regions require more oxygen so blood flow increases
- Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
- Used to establish cause and effect. A magnetic filed applied to scalp, inhibiting neurons below
- Electroencephalography (EEG)
- Measures brain's electrical activity. Electrodes attracted to scalp. Different waveforms produced reflect different functional states of the brain
- Event related potentials
- Interested in EEG waves in response to pschological events
- Peaks observed in ERP
- Evaluation: + Excellent temporal resolution - Poor spatial resolution
- Test items
- Items take the form of closed Q's or statements
- Psychological scales provide quantitative data
- Response biases
- Acquiescence bias
- Tendency to respond positively to all items
- Response bias
- Tendency to give the dame response to all items
- Acquiescence bias
- Reaction Time
- Different measures
- Philosophy, Science, & Open Science
- Publication bias
- Exaggeration
- Post-hoc
- P-value fishing
- Outliers
- Non-publication
- Open science
- A movement to make parts of the research openly available
- Sharing prevents making up theory to explain data, and allows comparisons of data with other datasets
- Confirmatory vs exploratory analysis
- Confirmatory - Rationale and hypothesis known in advance
- Exploratory - Not sure what you are going to do or expect
- Philosophy of science
- Science: 'A systematic enterprise that builds knowledge in testable explanations'.
- The scientific methods: 1. Create hypothesis 2. Test hypothesis w./ observations 3. Accept/refute hypothesis 4. Integrate findings into theory
- When designing study, eliminate bias
- Replication
- Attempt to replicate a study and produce the same finding
- Fundamental principle of scientific developments
- Replication studies are relatively harder to publish
- Parsimony & Paradigm shifts
- Parsimony = 'Preference for the simplest theory'.
- If the theory doesnt capture data, there is an infinite number of 'add-ons'.
- Paradigm = 'A typical example/pattern of something.'
- In a field of enquiry, a dominant way of doing + thinking about wat is being explored, occurs.
- Falsification
- Falsification : 'You can only prove that a prediction of a theory is false, not true.'
- For a theory to be scientific: - logically coherent - Testable via experience -Parsimonious - Components of theory must reflect real experience
- Why do we need theories?
- Can't describe a notion unless a theory of underlying process is present
- A theory that explains certain data is unsolvable
- Can have alternative models that describe data
- Theories allow us to make predictions or account for data
- Psychology as a science
- Psychology is amde up of many different approaches
- Quantitative And qualitative methodologies
- Publication bias
- Quantitative Research
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