Loftus and Palmer 1974

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  • Loftus and Palmer 1974
    • Methodology
      • Procedures
        • Findings
          • Conclusions
            • Loftus and Palmer propose to explanations for the results.
              • Response-Bias Factors
                • The diffrent speed estimates occur becaus the critical word (e.g smashed) influences or biases the person's response
              • The memory representation is altered
                • The critical word changes a person's memory so that teir perception of the accident is affected. Some critical words would lead someone to have a perception of the accident having been more serious.
                  • If this is true, we would expect participants to remember other details that are not true (as tested by the second experiment.)
                    • Findings from experiment 2 suggest that the effects of leading questions, is not due to the first explanation: "Response Bias Factor" . But rather, alter the memories of an event
                      • This can be understood in relation to research on the effects of verbal label on to be remembered forms, such as in the classic study by Carmichael et al. (1932). Where verbal labels cause a shift in the way information is represented in memory in the direction of being more similar to the suggestion given by the verbal label.
                        • e.g. Stimulus figure could be a backward "S" shape. There would be two word lists. One would give the verbal lable as "Two", the other "Eight. This would affect the way the figures were reproduced by the participants.
            • The findings indicate that the form of a question can markedly and systematically affect a witness's answer to that question.
          • A mean speed was calculated
            • 40.8 mph
              • 39.3mph
                • 38.1 mph
                  • 34.0 mph
                    • 31.8 mph
                    • Participants gave the lowest speed when given the word "contacted"
              • Participants gave higher speeds when the word "smashed was used, compared to the other groups.
        • The participants were shown seven film clips of diffrent traffic accidents.(5 to 30 seconds).
          • These clips were originally part of of a driver safety film.
          • Then, Questionaire
            • They were asked to give an account of what they observed.
            • ...Including a series of questions
              • There was one "critical question": "About how fast were the cars going when they ---- each other?"
                • smashed
                  • 40.8 mph
                    • 39.3mph
                      • 38.1 mph
                        • 34.0 mph
                          • 31.8 mph
                          • Participants gave the lowest speed when given the word "contacted"
                    • Participants gave higher speeds when the word "smashed was used, compared to the other groups.
                • colided
                  • bumped
                    • contacted
                      • hit
              • Experiment 1
                • 45 student participants
                • The participants were shown seven film clips of diffrent traffic accidents.(5 to 30 seconds).
                  • These clips were originally part of of a driver safety film.
                  • Then, Questionaire
                    • They were asked to give an account of what they observed.
                    • ...Including a series of questions
                      • There was one "critical question": "About how fast were the cars going when they ---- each other?"
                        • smashed
                          • colided
                            • bumped
                              • contacted
                                • hit
                        • Experiment 2
                          • 150 student participants
                          • Investigated where leading questions bias a person's response, or alters the memory that is stored
                          • Part One
                            • Shown a film of a multiple car crash.
                              • Then asked a set of questions, including a critical question about speed.
                                • Group 1: "How fast when they smashed into each other?"
                                  • Participants gave a higher speed estimates in "smashed" condition, like Experiment 1.
                                  • Group 1 were also more likely to report broken glass, when there was any
                                • Group 2: "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?"
                                • Group 3: Control group with no questions
                          • Part Two
                            • One week later
                            • Were asked: " Did you see any broken glass?"
                              • Hit
                                • Yes:7
                                • No: 43
                              • Smashed
                                • Yes: 16
                                • No: 34
                              • Control Group
                                • Yes: 6
                                • No: 44
                              • (There was no actual broken glass in the film. But presumably, those who thought the cars were traveling faster might expect there to be.)
                        • Labratory
                        • Independant group design

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