ISSUES OF PSEUDOSCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC FRAUD
Mind map of pseudoscience and scientif fraud in relation to anomalous and paranormal research
- Created by: alice
- Created on: 15-12-12 13:22
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- ISSUES OF PSEUDOSCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC FRAUD
- Pseudoscience
- Pseudoscience is a field of study that masqurades as a science but lacks important characteristics. Some features of anomalus research suggests it's pseudoscientific
- Lacks a Thoery to Explain the Effects
- The aim of scientific research is to construct explanations for observations made about the world
- Many paranormal phenomena haven't, as yet, been given likely explanations
- In pseudoscience, a disproof usually results in criticisms in methodology; in science it results in proposing an alternative explanation
- Lacks Carefully Controlled Replicable Research
- Many studies of psi phenomena are highly controlled, but many aren't controlled and have failed to be replicated.
- If a study is replicated, but the original results are not confirmed it puts them in doubt
- Irrefutable Hypotheses
- The aim of the scientific process is to test hypotheses; you can't prove a hypothesis correct, but you can prove it wrong (i.e. falsify).
- Sometimes this isn't possible, e.g. if a study found no evidence of psychokinesis it would seem that the hypothesis that PK exists wrong. However then sheep say that the phenomena disappears in the presence of skeptics
- Many hypotheses relating to anomalous experience are unfalsifiable
- Burden of Proof
- Supporters of psi phenomena require no proof and say its down to skeptics to disproof their reality
- Such disproof is difficult because, for example, the hypothesis is unfalsifiable
- In science, unlike paranormal investigations, the burden of proof lies with the believer not the skeptic
- Supporters of psi phenomena require no proof and say its down to skeptics to disproof their reality
- Paranormal Research is Not the Only Example of Pseudoscience
- Same accusations have been made, for example, Freud's theory because many of his hypotheses are unfalsifiable
- There are many examples of scientific research where believers persist despite clear disproof, e.g. cold fusion
- Lacks Ability to Change
- A key characteristic of science is that explanations are adapted as a result of hypotheses-testing
- This is not the case for psi phenomena, which have continued to be explained in the same way for centuries
- Why Research Anomalous Experience?
- Some people make alot of money out of unfounded claims
- We should be ecouraged to ask for evidence rather than respond to trends and superstitions, which , in the past has led to horrible crimes, e.g. the persecution of witches
- Thorough research may lead to valuable discoveries, e.g. acupuncture is now an accepted pain relief treatment
- Jealous Phenomena: paranormal psychologists claim that the skeptics presence can lead to negative results as they make the phenomena 'go away'
- Further claim that if a researcher insists on high control, they are demonstrating their lack of belief
- Occam's Razor:the principle that if there are 2 competing conclusions and all other things are the equal; the simpler explanation is to be preferred
- Many paranormal explanations are highly convoluted, according to occam's razor the simplier non-paranormal explanation should be prefered
- Status as a science: the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) allowed the Parapsychological Association (PA) to become an affliated member in 1968
- Scientific Fraud
- J.B. Rhine
- One of the first serious paranormal researchers founding a paranormal research lab at Duke University in the US in 1930
- Reported that at least 12 of the researchers behaved dishonestly to gain significant results
- Including his personal assistant Walter Levy who tampered with equipment that looked at ESP in rates (Rhine, 1974)
- Because he strove to maintain high standards in his research lab he reported his assistants for cheating - although he didn't provide the names
- Gardner (1988) suggests he was wrong to maintain the anonymity of his fraudulent researchers because we can;t identify the work they were involved in that may have been published as fact
- Scientific fraud is found throughout scientific research. Playfair (2009) suggests that many noted scientists, including Galileo, Mandel and Newton have resorted to data-fudging or outright intervention
- Hines (2003) suggests that historically fraud has been more common in parapsychology, probably due to researchers feeling pushed for positive results
- The Soal Affair
- British mathematician S.G. Soal spent years testing ppts for ESP.
- He found a man who appeared to have the ability (Basil Shackleton) and tested him from 1941-43 using careful procedures: an agent looks at 1 of 5 cards and transmits the image into Shackletons mind seated in another room).
- Found odds as high as 1035 to 1 that the results would have occurred by chance. 21 observers at the sessions confirmed there was no trickery
- Gretle Albert, an agent of Soal's, said that Soal faked his results by changing the 1s to 4s and 5s to make correct answers
- Remains unconfirmed since he never admitted to the fraud and is now dead.
- Analysis of the data suggested a higher frequency of 4s and 5s than chance -supporting the accusation of fraud
- Carl Sargent
- Conducted research into ESP using the Ganzfeld technique
- Blackmore (1987) visited his lab and noticed some suspicious behaviour.
- Sargent defended himself, but thereafter left the research field -suggesting guilt
- Continued to be included in carious reviews such as Ben and Honortons review (1994) where 9 of the 18 studies were from his lab and therefore may be fraudulent
- Uri Geller
- Became famous in the 1970s for his ability to bend spoons and other psychic powers
- James Randi (1982) a highly successful magician accused Geller of being a fraud and using magic tricks to perform allegedly paranormal feats
- His former manager confessed on Italian TV to helping Geller cheat (Harris, 1978)
- J.B. Rhine
- Pseudoscience
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