A level - Approaches to Psychology - Mindmap in A Level and IB Psychology

Created by: Make7M
Created on: 29-11-17 12:15

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Approaches
- Origins
  - Wilhelm Wundt
    - Published first book 1873 - Principles of Physiological Psychology
    - Opened first psychology laboratory Leipzig Germany 1879
    - Structuralism
      - Study structure of human mind by breaking behaviours into basic elements
      - Used 'Introspection'
        Griffiths 1994 - asked fruit machine gamblers to 'think aloud''
        
        P's asked to reflect on their own cognitive processes and describe them
        
        Csikzentmilyi and Hunter 2003 - used introspection to study happiness in their work, in positive psychology
      - Limitations
        Not replicable - unreliable
        
        Reports distorted - pretend to have more +ive thoughts
        
        Delay between experience and reporting - forget parts
      - Acceptance of psychology as a science
        Scientific method
        Standardised instructions
        
        Recorded data under controlled conditions, using same stimulus every time
- Freud Psychodynamics 1900s
  - Assumptions
    - Unconscious processes determine our behaviour
      - Early childhood experience determine adult personality
        Psychosexual stages
        Oral 0-1 years
        Anal 1-3 years
        Phallic 3-5 years
        Latency 5 - puberty
        Genital
        Sexual urges awakened, adolescent direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex
        Non, Sexually matured
        
        Sexual urges remain repressed, play with same sex peers (Identify)
        Non
        
        Unconscious desires (Oedipus Complex)
        Develops masculine characteristics ___________Weak or confused sexual identity
        
        Eliminating feaces, has to learn to control anal stimulation
        Obsession with cleanliness and control __________ Messy disorganized
        
        Oral pleasure (sucking)
        Too much / little = fixation __________ Smoke, drink, over eat, bite nails, over dependent on others, gullible, perpetual followers, Develop pessimism and aggression
        
        Personality
        Ego
        Superego
        Its the consciousness and ego ideal. Its a 'relentless policeman' and insists we do the 'right thing'. Opposes the desires of the Id. It enforces moral restrictions and battle against Id impulses. Develops in later childhood, at which point the child internalises the moral rules and social norms.
        
        In between part. Uses its cognitive abilities to manage and control the Id and balance its desires against reality the restrictions of reality and the superego. Operates on the 'reality principle'. Defends itself from Id and Superego through defence mechanisms.
        Defence mechanisms
        Repression
        Denial
        Displacement
        Transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
        
        Refusing to believe something, as its too painful to acknowledge the reality
        
        Forces distressing memory from the conscious mind
        
        Id
        Selfish part. Controlled by unconscious mind. Uses 'primary processes' to satisfy its needs. Operating according to the 'pleasure principle'. Comes from two instinctive drives Eros (psychic energy) and Thanatos (death instinct)
      - Unconscious Processes
        The conscious
        The pre-conscious
        The Unconscious
        Biological drives, memories that have been repressed
        
        Thoughts we may become aware of in dreams
        
        Things we are aware off
  - Evaluation
    - Case studies
      - Although detailed and carefully recorded
        Cannot make universal claims based from small number of individuals
        Lacks reliability and population validity
    - Development of psychoanalysis therapy
      - Credible - showed significant maintained improvement after treatment
        Therapies have limited effect
        Meta-analysis found it worked for 66%, compared to a control group with no therapy 70% showed improvement
        Approach lacks validity
      - Help individuals deal with traumatic memories in the unconcious
        However, other cultures do not value such insight in the same way
    - Culturally bias
      - Used individuals from Western backgrounds
        Not apply to people of different cultures
    - Theories impossible to test
      - does not meet scientific criteria of falsification
        Not open to empirical testing
    - Psychic determinism
      - No such thing as accident
        All behaviour described as 'acts of the unconcious mind
        'Freudian slip' - deep meaning driven by unconcious forces
- Learning Approach - Behaviourism 1920-30s
  - Interested in behaviour that can be observed and measured
    - Behaviour learnt from environment and experience
      - Believes basic human processes are same as those in animals
  - Rejects introspection - vague, difficult to measure
    - Uses lab experiments in their studies - maintain more control and objectivity
  - Identified two forms of learning
    - Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning
      - BF Skinner Operant Conditioning 1953
        Learning is an active process, we operate on our environment
        
        Positive reinforcement
        Negative reinforcement
        Punishment
        Punish behaviour
        Dec. likelihood of occurring
        
        Performing behaviour to avoid consequence
        
        Behaviour is rewarded
        Inc. likelihood of occurring
        
        Skinners box
        Had rats (or pigeons) press a lever (peck a disc) rewarded with food
        
        Learning through consequence
      - Learning through association
      - Conditioned a dog to salivate to the sound of a bell
        Dog learnt to associate food with sound of bell
  - Evaluation
    - Dehumanising and reductionistic
      - Portrays humans as symplistic
        Does not account for free will
    - Scientific credibility
      - Focuses on measurable and observable behaviour
        Influential in the development of psychology as a science
      - Uses experimental methods, under controlled conditions
        Results successfully replicated
        Valid and Reliable
        
        Allows for a casual relationship to be established
    - Mechanistic view of behaviour
      - Does not factor the influence of thoughts and cognitive processes
    - Ethical and practical issues of animals studies
      - Exposed to stressful conditions
        Lacks ecological validity, cant genrolise
    - Environmental determinism
      - All behaviour determined by past experience
        Ignores possible influence of free will
    - Applications
      - therapies - systematic desyntesation
        However, cannot treat all disorders such as schizophrenia which has a biological cause
        Treats symptoms rather than underlying reasons, no lasting solution - cause persists
      - Prisons, token economy
- Cognitive 1960s
  - Investigates area of behaviour that behaviourists ignore
    - Internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically
      - Processes are 'private' so cannot be observed, therefore they are studied indirectly, by making 'inferences'
        Drawing conclusion on the bias of observed behaviour
  - Use of models to understand the brain
    - Input
      - Processing
        Output
    - Computer models, similarities in the way information is processed
      - Brain - CPU, coding neural impulses - binary, stores memory - hard drive
        Useful in the development of AI
  - Schemas
    - 'Package of beliefs and expectations from prior experience
    - Act as a mental framework for interpreting new incoming informaiton
    - They develop and get more sophisticated as we get older
    - Allow to process information quickly, prevent us from being overwhelmed by the environment
    - Can distort our interpretations and lead to perceptual errors
  - Cognitive Neuroscience 2000s
    - Study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
    - Broca 1860s identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production
    - Using techniques fMRI and PET scans scientists are able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
    - Tulving showed different types of LTM on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex
    - Now use computer generated models, mind mapping techniques known as 'brain fingerprinting', used to analyse brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to see if they are lying in court
    - Evaluation
      - Use fMRI/ PET scans
        Supports idea of models
        STM are separate stores
  - Evaluation
    - Applications
      - CBT for OCD and depression
    - Use lab experiments
      - Lacks ecological validity, do not reflect real behaviour
        Cannot genralise results to real life situations
        Lacks external validity
      - Produce reliable and objective data
        Replicable
    - Machine reductionistic
      - Computer analogy
        Ignores influence of human emotion and motivation
- Learning Approach - Social Learning Theory 1960s
  - Agrees behaviour is learnt from experience
    - Proposed behaviour is learnt through observation and imitation
      - Learning can occur directly CC OP as well as indirectly
        Vicarious reinforcement
        Observed behaviour is rewarded
  - Bandura Bobo Doll
    - Children observed aggressive or non- aggressive behaviour from model towards the doll
      - Children reproduced physical and verbal aggressive behaviour
        1/3 repeated models verbal responses
        
        Children observing non- aggressive model produced no aggressive behaviour
    - Follow-up children who saw model be rewarded were more likely to show aggressive behaviour in own play
  - Meditational Processes
    - Attention
      - Rettention
        Motor Reproduction
        Motivation
        Will to perform behaviour
        
        Ability to perform behaviour
        
        How well remembered
      - Notice behaviour
  - Identification
    - Do not have to be physically present
    - Process of imitating a role model is 'modelling'
    - Role model: similar characteristics, attractive or have high status
  - Evaluation
    - Recognises importance of cognitive processes in learning
    - Over reliance on evidence from lab studies
      - Banduras ideas developed through observation of children
        Prone to demand characteristics
        Research may tell us little how kids learn aggression in real life
        
        Cannot genralise results to adults
    - Underestimates influence of biological factors
      - Does not account for Inc. testosterone in boys
        Meaning important influence not accounted for
- Biological 1980s
  - Everything psychological is at first biological
    - To fully understand human behaviour we must look at biological structures and processes within the body
      - Understanding the brain structure and functions can explain our thoughts and behaviour
        Contrast to cognitive approach, that sees mental processes of the mind as being separated from the physical brain
  - Evolution
    - Natural selection, is genetically determined behaviour that embraces an individuals survival to continue in future generations.
      - Farmers, select animals with desirable characteristics for breeding and these remain in the gene pool
  - Genetic basis of behaviour
    - Whether behavioural characteristics are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics
      - Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates, between twins the extent to which both twins share the characteristics
        If Monozygotic twins have a higher concordance rate than Dizygotic twins for a trait this would suggest it is genetic, as they share 100% genetics
        Bouchard and McGue 1981 reviewed a meta-analysis of 111 studies which compared the IQ of family members. The correlation figures represent the average degree of similarity between the two people
        Identical (Monozygotic) twins raised together = 86 raised apart = 72
        Non Identical (Dizygotic) twins raised together = 60
        Siblings together = 47 apart = 24
        Cousins = 15
  - Genotype and Phenotype
    - Genotype is a persons makeup
      - Phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through physical, psychological and behavioural characteristics
        Genotype + Environment = Phenotype
        Behaviour depends on an interaction between nature and nurture
  - Evaluation
    - Applications
      - Inc. understanding of biochemicals in brain - drug development
        Sufferers are able to manage their condition
        Not always effective
    - Ethical issues - determisism - criminals
      - Avoid taking responsibility in court
      - Screening
        Those at higher risk of developing disorder - avoid situations that could trigger it
        
        Some individuals pose no risk
    - Scientific methods
      - Highly controlled
        Objective reliable results
    - Reductionistic
      - Does not consider other explanations
        Cognitive, emotional or cultural factors
    - Supports nature on N-N debate
      - Behaviour comes from genetic influence
        Studies of cocordance
- Humanism 1950s
  - Assumptions
    - Rejects scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour
      - We are active agents and are all unique
        Believe psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws
        Known as 'Person Centered Approach'
  - Free will
    - Humans make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors
  - Self- actualisation Maslows Hierarchy
    - Every person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential
    - Hierarchy of needs
      - Self- actualisation
        Esteem
        Love/ belonging
        Safety
        Physiological
        Breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, excretion
        
        Employment, family, health
        
        Friendship, family, sexual intimacy
        
        Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others
        
        Morality, creativity, problem solving
  - The Self
    - Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved, the individuals concept of the self has to be similar to their ideal self
      - If a too big of a gap exists between the two 'selves', person experiences incongruence. so self- actualisation cannot occur, due to negative feelings of self-worth
        Many of the issues we experience as adults such as worthlessness have their roots in childhood, and can be explained by a lack of Unconditional positive regard from our parents
        Parents who set boundaries on their love for their child, by saying 'I will only love you if...' is storing problems for the child in the future
        Rogers as a therapist provided his clients with Unconditional positive regard that they failed to receive as children
  - Evaluation
    - Untestable, vague ideas, difficult to test and gather any scientific evidence
      - Such as self- actualisation in an experimental environment
        Lacks credibility
        Cannot objectively validate its assumptions
    - Holistic, considers the whole person
    - Maslows hierarchy supported by research
      - Hagerty found lower level needs in early economical developing countries
        Whilst countries with advanced stages of economic development saw esteem and self-actualisation
    - Assumes people are interested in personal growth
      - Ignores people may be pessimistic or self-destructive
        States - development of personality is simply by personal growth
        Over simplified, ignores situational factors
    - Treats everyone unique
      - Gender research
        Greater difference within gender than between
    - Culturally bias
      - Based on assumptions of Western society, individualist society
        Cannot be applied to Eastern cultures, collectivist society

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A level - Approaches to Psychology

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